Bracketing Guidelines for Treebank II Style
Penn Treebank Project
1
Principal authors:
Ann Bies, Mark Ferguson, Karen Katz, and Robert MacIntyre
Major contributors:
Victoria Tredinnick, Grace Kim, Mary Ann Marcinkiewicz, Britta
Schasberger
2
January 1995 |
Contents
A note about the examples in this manual:
Many of the examples in this manual are taken directly from the bracketed
corpus, with full structure intact (excluding Part-of-Speech tags).
Occasionally, however, we simplify the example by removing irrelevant
internal structure; we hope that these occasions will be clear.
In addition, we usually omit final punctuation, as well as the outermost
unlabeled parentheses that surround top-level constituents in the actual
data files.
1 An Overview of Basic Clause Structure
This section presents of an overview of basic structure, but it does not
attempt to summarize or justify the entire policy. For an overview of the
new bracketing style, with some notes about its usefulness, see
[Marcus et al. 1994] (included on the cdrom release as “arpa94”).
For an overview of the Treebank Project in general, see [Marcus et al. 1993]
(“cl93”). Note also that, for the most part, this manual focuses on problematic constructions rather than common ones, for mostly
historical reasons.
The basic structure of an S in the Treebank grammar was formerly
(Preliminary Release, Version 0.5, 1992):
(S (NP Casey)
(VP throws
(NP the ball)))
More complicated structures were annotated with an AUX node.
(S (NP Casey)
(AUX will)
(VP throw
(NP the ball)))
(S (NP Casey)
(AUX should)
(VP have
(VP thrown
(NP the ball))))
The basic approach to simple sentences has not changed. However, we no
longer have a specially bracketed and labeled AUX; the node that was
formerly AUX now corresponds to the highest level of the VP.
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP will
(VP throw
(NP the ball))))
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP should
(VP have
(VP thrown
(NP the ball)))))
1.1 Basic elements of S
The predicate is either the lowest (right-most branching) VP or (after
copular verbs and in “small clauses”) a constituent tagged
-PRD. Moved predicates leave a coindexed trace *T* in VP.
1.1.2 Arguments of the predicate
-
External:
The surface subject is tagged -SBJ (subject).
- Internal:
-
Direct object NP: occurs after the
verb, has no function tag, and is not followed by another NP.
- Indirect object NPs are of the
following types:
(i) NPs that occur between the verb and its direct object and have no
function tags, as in dative shift constructions (e.g., gave Mary
the book)
(ii) dative PPs (e.g., to Mary), tagged -DTV.
Only verbs that can undergo dative shift are considered to have
dative objects.
1.1.3 Level of attachment
-
S-level:
The following are attached at S-level: subject NP, highest VP, fronted
constituents, initial and final punctuation, and most modifiers that
precede the verb phrase. When there is no VP (as in “small clauses”),
the predicate is labeled -PRD , and it and any following
adjuncts are attached at S-level.
- VP-level:
-
Almost all modifiers that follow the
verb are attached under the lowest appropriate VP. When there is
conjunction and the modifier applies to both VPs, the modifier is attached
at conjunction level.
- An exception is made for modifiers
that are interpreted as appositives to the event or the predicate itself.
Such modifiers are adjoined to VP. Some of them may also have a -ADV tag.
(S (NP-SBJ Investors)
(VP might
(VP (VP appear
(ADJP-PRD unenthusiastic
(PP about
(NP the new issue))))
(SBAR (WHNP-1 which)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP might
(VP force
(S (NP-SBJ the government)
(VP to
(VP raise
(NP the coupon)
(PP-CLR to
(NP (QP more than 7)
%))))))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP would
(VP (VP negotiate
(NP rates)
(ADVP-MNR individually)
(PP-CLR with
(NP advertisers)))
,
(NP-ADV (NP a practice)
(ADJP common
(PP-LOC in
(NP broadcasting)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ factory inventories)
(VP (VP fell
(NP-EXT 0.1 %)
(PP-TMP in
(NP September)))
,
(NP (NP the first decline)
(PP-TMP since
(NP February 1987)))))
1.1.4 Complementation within syntactic categories
The complement is attached inside the VP, NP, ADJP, or PP.
-
Verbs:
The term “complement” as it is used here refers to:
-
internal arguments such as NP objects, S
and SBAR with no adverbial dash tags (including some if-clauses, as
in I wonder if the Cubs are winning), and quoted constituents
(including SINV and FRAG)
- the passive logical-subject by-phrase
- VP
- constituents tagged -BNF, -CLR, -DTV, -PRD, and -PUT
(S (NP-SBJ-1 the guide)
(VP was
(VP given
(NP *-1)
(PP-DTV to
(NP Arthur))
(PP by
(NP-LGS Ford)))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Casey)
(VP ought
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP have
(VP thrown
(NP the ball)))))))
- Nouns:
Since it is difficult to consistently annotate an argument/adjunct
distinction, all PP modifiers of nouns are
Chomsky-adjoined to the NP:
(NP (NP a teacher)
(PP of
(NP chemistry)))
However, clausal complements are recognized:
(NP the belief
(SBAR that
(S the world is flat)))
- Adjectives:
Except in comparatives, any modifier
following an adjective is bracketed as a complement.
(ADJP eager/likely/ready
(S to believe anything))
(ADJP full
(PP of
(NP life)))
- Prepositions:
The NP or S complement of a preposition
is placed inside the PP.
1.1.5 Modification
-
Premodifiers:
Premodifiers generally are placed inside the phrase they are associated
with:
(NP the red ball)
(ADJP extremely delicious)
(ADVP (NP one year) ago)
VP premodifiers, however, are more often
attached at S-level:
(S (NP-SBJ Sandy)
(ADVP-TMP often)
(VP throws
(NP curves)))
but they may also be attached inside the VP (see section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] for more details):
(S (NP-SBJ Sandy)
(VP (ADVP-MNR sneakily)
threw
(NP a curve)))
- Postmodifiers:
Postmodifiers of NPs and comparative ADJPs are adjoined to the NP or ADJP:
(NP (NP a book)
(PP about
(NP toads)))
(ADJP (ADJP as tall)
(PP as
(NP him)))
Postmodifiers of VP are attached under VP,
with adverbial function tag(s) where appropriate:
(VP reading
(PP-CLR about
(NP toads))
(PP-LOC on
(NP the Internet)))
When it is not clear whether a modifier within the VP should be attached at
VP-level or to an object NP, the default is to attach at VP-level (see
section 5 [Pseudo-Attach]).
1.2 Clause types
We distinguish among a number of basic clause types: S, SINV, SBAR, RRC,
SBARQ, SQ, S-CLF, it-extraposition, and FRAG.
-
Simple declarative sentences:
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP threw
(NP the ball)))
- Passives:
The surface subject is tagged -SBJ , the passive
trace is indicated with (NP *) and coindexed to the
surface subject, the by-phrase is a child of VP, and the logical subject
is tagged -LGS
. (Note that the -LGS tag goes on the NP and not on the PP of
the by-phrase.)
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The ball)
(VP was
(VP thrown
(NP *-1)
(PP by
(NP-LGS Casey)))))
- Imperatives:
Imperatives are labeled S and given a null subject (NP-SBJ *).
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Throw
(NP the ball))
!)
If the name of the addressee appears with the imperative (at either the
beginning or end), it is tagged -VOC (vocative) . The
vocative is NOT coindexed to the null surface subject.
(S (NP-VOC American imperialists)
,
(NP-SBJ *)
(VP go
(ADVP-DIR home))
!)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Close
(NP the door)
,
(NP-VOC John))
.)
- Questions with declarative word order:
Sentences that end with a question mark but have non-inverted word order
are labeled S:
(S (NP-SBJ This)
(VP is
(NP-PRD Japan))
?)
(S (NP-SBJ You)
(VP did
(NP what))
?)
However, questions that are missing both subject and auxiliary are labeled
SQ .
(SQ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP See
(NP that cute dog))
?)
- Infinitives:
Infinitives are labeled S and take (NP-SBJ *) as the null subject,
where to represents the highest level of the VP. (See section 14 [Infinitives]
for more on the annotation of infinitivals.)
-
Complement clauses.
When the infinitive is a VP complement, the null subject of the infinitive
is coindexed as usual to its logical subject (usually the subject of the
matrix clause, but sometimes the object of the verb or not coindexed at
all).
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Casey)
(VP wants
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP throw
(NP the ball))))))
- Purpose clauses.
Purpose clauses are attached at S and labeled -PRP (purpose/reason)
. The subject is coindexed to the surface subject of the
matrix clause when there is a coindexed interpretation.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Sue)
(VP arrived
(ADVP-TMP early)
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP get
(NP a good seat))))))
- Infinitival relatives.
In the case of infinitival relatives, the relative is adjoined to NP and
dominated by SBAR with a zero wh-complementizer labeled according
to the role played by the gapped constituent. A *T* in the position of the
gap is coindexed to the wh-complementizer. The (NP-SBJ *) is not
indexed.
(NP (NP a movie)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP see
(NP *T*-1))))))
- Participial and gerund clauses:
Participial clauses have full clause structure, with either a lexical or
null (NP-SBJ *) subject. (See section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for more on the annotation of
participial and gerund clauses.)
“Floating” participles are tagged -ADV.
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ The crowd)
(VP cheering
(ADVP-MNR madly)))
,
(NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP caught
(NP the ball)))
When appropriate, the null subject is coindexed to an NP in the matrix
clause (generally the logical/structural subject).
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP Running
(PP-DIR toward
(NP Casey))))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 Willie)
(VP caught
(NP the ball)))
Gerunds that act as the surface subject or as the object of
a preposition are tagged -NOM .
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Baking
(NP pies)))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD fun)))
(S (PP With
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ interest rates)
(VP rising)))
,
(NP-SBJ the market)
(VP is
(VP moving
(ADVP-MNR slowly))))
Verb complement gerunds , including
those in “serial” verb constructions, are all bracketed as a simple S,
with coindexed subject when appropriate.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP do not
(VP mind
(S (NP-SBJ you(r))
(VP leaving
(ADVP-TMP early))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The audience)
(VP keeps
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP leaving
(ADVP-TMP early)))))
SBAR complement gerunds are also
bracketed as a simple S.
( (S (NP-SBJ-1 He)
(VP ate
(NP television)
(SBAR-TMP while
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP watching
(NP dinner)))))
.))
The SINV label is used for subject-auxiliary inversion in
the case of negative inversion, conditional inversion, locative inversion,
and some topicalizations. (SINV is not used with questions. See
section 1.2.6 and
section 1.2.5 for the
treatment of subject-auxiliary inversion in the case of yes/no questions
and wh-questions, respectively.) Inverted auxiliaries are
unlabeled.
(SINV (ADVP-TMP Never)
had
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP seen
(NP such a place)))
When the inversion results in a conditional clause
(i.e., when it is equivalent to (SBAR-ADV if... ), the SINV is enclosed in
SBAR-ADV).
(S (SBAR-ADV (SINV had
(NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP thrown
(NP the ball)
(ADVP-MNR harder))))
,
(NP-SBJ it)
(VP would
(VP have
(VP reached
(NP home plate)
(PP-TMP in
(NP time))))))
When subject-aux inversion is triggered by the predicate
(or a piece thereof) moving out of the VP to a position preceding the
subject, the moved predicate phrase is tagged -TPC (topicalized)
and leaves a coindexed trace in the VP. Note that in this
case, the auxiliaries that precede the subject are labeled VP (whereas in
other cases of inversion they are left unlabeled), so that there's a place
to properly attach the VP trace.
(SINV (VP-TPC-1 Marching
(PP-DIR past
(NP the reviewing stand)))
(VP were
(VP *T*-1))
(NP-SBJ 500 musicians))
(SINV (ADJP-PRD-TPC-2 (ADVP Even more)
unusual)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD *T*-2))
(NP-SBJ (NP the mating behavior)
(PP of
(NP the praying mantis))))
(SINV (ADVP Also)
(ADJP-PRD-TPC-11 present)
(VP will
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD *T*-11)))
(NP-SBJ (NP (NP the bride 's)
children)
,
(NP Joan and Kirkland)))
(SINV (ADVP-DIR-TPC-3 Out)
(VP might
(VP have
(VP popped
(ADVP-DIR *T*-3))))
(NP-SBJ a jack-in-the-box))
(SINV (S-TPC-4 (NP-SBJ We)
(VP will
(VP win)))
,
(VP said
(SBAR 0
(S *T*-4))
(NP-SBJ Casey)))
SBAR is used for relative clauses and subordinate clauses, including
indirect questions.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The person)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP threw
(NP the ball)))))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD very athletic)))
(S (NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP knew
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP threw
(NP the ball))))))
(S (NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP asked
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP threw
(NP the ball))))))
The wh-prefixed labels, WHNP, WHADVP,
WHADJP, WHPP, are used only when there is wh-movement, and they always
leave a trace *T*. (See section 9 [WH-Phrases] for more information.)
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The committee)
(VP continued
(NP its meeting)
(SBAR-TMP while
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP eating
(NP lunch))))))
1.2.4 RRC (reduced relative clause)
Reduced relative clauses are adjoined to the NP they modify.
(NP (NP An orangutan)
(VP foaming
(PP-CLR at
(NP the mouth))))
All sentential modifiers in reduced relatives are attached at VP level,
even when they precede the verb itself.
(NP (NP a car)
(VP not built
(NP *)
(PP by
(NP-LGS Mazda))
(PP-TMP for
(NP the last five years))))
The RRC label is used only in cases where there is no VP and an
extra level is needed for proper attachment of sentential modifiers (see
section 13 [Gerunds and Participles]).
(NP (NP 110 titles)
(RRC not
(ADVP-TMP presently)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the collection))))
In the case of passives, a passive trace
(NP *) is inserted under the VP, but it is not indexed, since the null
subject to which the passive trace would be
coindexed is not present in the annotation. The logical subject is tagged
-LGS.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP bought
(NP (NP a car)
(VP built
(NP *)
(PP by
(NP-LGS Mazda))))))
Compare with the unreduced:
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP bought
(NP (NP a car)
(SBAR (WHNP-5 which)
(S (NP-SBJ-6 *T*-5)
(VP was
(VP built
(NP *-6)
(PP by
(NP-LGS Mazda)))))))))
The SBARQ label marks wh-questions (i.e., those that contain a gap and therefore require a
trace). A further level of structure, SQ, contains the inverted
auxiliary (if there is one) and the rest of the sentence. The inverted
auxiliary in wh-questions is not labeled.
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 Who)
(SQ (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP threw
(NP the ball)))
?)
(SBARQ (WHNP-2 What)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP throw
(NP *T*-2)))
?)
(SBARQ (WHNP-3 Who)
(SQ (NP-SBJ *T*-3)
(VP will
(VP throw
(NP the ball))))
?)
If the main verb is inverted, most arguments and adjuncts
go at SQ level:
(SBARQ (WHADVP-1 Why)
(SQ (PP-LOC in
(NP these movies))
is
(NP-SBJ the unwed pregnant woman)
(ADVP-TMP always)
(PP-PRD from
(NP Ohio))
(ADVP-PRP *T*-1))
?)
(See also section 1.2.7.)
-
inside SBARQ:
As described above, inside wh-questions, SQ holds the subject,
inverted auxiliary (if any), main verb phrase, and some adjuncts.
- yes/no questions:
SQ is used for yes/no questions (i.e., those with
inversion but no wh-movement).
(SQ Did
(NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP throw
(NP the ball))
?)
- subject-less yes/no questions:
In questions where the auxiliary and subject do not appear, the auxiliary
is unlabeled and a null subject (NP-SBJ *) is used.
(SQ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP See
(NP that cute dog))
?)
Note that questions with overt subjects and auxiliaries that show
declarative word order are simply labeled S.
- Tag questions:
Tag questions are treated as an adjunction of SQ to S. The resulting
structure is labeled SQ, since the whole thing is interrogative in nature.
The lower SQ is annotated to show predicate deletion; that is, an
appropriate null *?* is inserted.
(SQ (S But
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP knew
(NP that)))
,
(SQ did n't
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP *?*))
?)
(SQ (S (NP-SBJ That)
(VP 's
(NP-PRD the problem)))
,
(SQ is
n't
(NP-SBJ it)
(NP-PRD *?*))
?)
(it-cleft or “true” cleft)
Declarative it-clefts are labeled S-CLF, expletive it is
tagged as the surface subject (-SBJ), the SBAR is attached at VP-level, and
a trace is coindexed to the wh-complementizer of the clefted
portion. (See section 16 [Clefts] for more information.)
(S-CLF (NP-SBJ It)
(VP was
(NP Casey)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP threw
(NP the ball))))))
Traces for all adverbials, including purpose clauses, are labeled (ADVP
*T*) and coindexed to the WHADVP complementizer. If a preposition is
pied-piped, WHPP and (PP *T*) are used.
(S-CLF (NP-SBJ It)
(VP is
(ADVP-TMP-PRD then)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ-2 young queens)
(VP begin
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP appear)))
(ADVP-TMP *T*-1))))))
Interrogative it-clefts are labeled SQ-CLF:
(SQ-CLF Was
(NP-SBJ it)
(NP-PRD John)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP came
(PP-DIR to
(NP the party))
(PP-CLR in
(NP a dress)))))
?)
Note: wh-clefts do not receive special treatment in the corpus.
They contain a free/headless relative, followed by a form of the verb be, followed by a predicate (e.g., What sustained the worst
injuries / was / the car). (See section 2 [Notation] for a bit more on free
relatives.)
1.2.8 it-extraposition
Clauses that are extraposed from subject position are labeled S or SBAR.
The extraposed clause is attached at VP level and adjoined to the “it”
with *EXP*-attach. The NP containing it and *EXP* is tagged -SBJ.
(See section 17 [It-Extraposition] for more information.)
(S (NP-SBJ (NP It)
(S *EXP*-1))
(VP is
(NP-PRD a pleasure)
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP teach
(NP her))))))
(fragment)
FRAG marks those portions of text that appear to be clauses, but lack too
many essential elements for the exact structure to be easily determined
(e.g., answers to questions). Predicate argument structure therefore
cannot be extracted from FRAGs. Some examples of what we have called FRAG:
(SBARQ (WHNP-9 Who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-9)
(VP threw
(NP the ball)))
?)
(FRAG (NP Casey)
,
(NP-TMP yesterday))
(S (SBAR-ADV if
(FRAG not
(NP-TMP today)))
,
Casey will throw the ball tomorrow)
(SBAR-ADV Though
(FRAG (ADJP limited)))
(SBAR-ADV if
(FRAG (ADJP possible)))
(SBAR-ADV (WHNP Whatever)
(FRAG (NP the long-term economic effect)))
(FRAG (PP-LOC Among
(NP (NP the Guinness disk 's)
wonders))
:
(NP (NP the world 's)
loudest recorded belch)
.)
( (FRAG (NP (NP Two guys)
(PP from
(NP (NP Gary)
,
(NP Ind.))))
?
''))
( (FRAG Not
(ADJP so)
.))
( (FRAG (VP Guaranteed
(NP *)
(PP by
(NP-LGS India)))
.))
1.3 Clause combinations
1.3.1 Coordination
See section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] and section 7 [Coordination] for details concerning coordination
structures.
-
Phrase coordination
Coordination of phrases is represented in the annotation at the lowest
level possible. Single words are assumed to coordinate at word level
rather than projecting their own phrases, and only the highest level is
represented.
(S (NP-SBJ Girls and boys)
(VP throw and catch
(NP balls)))
However, the addition of modifiers generally forces a higher level of
coordination, which is shown with Chomsky-adjunction structure.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP These girls)
and
(NP those boys))
(VP (VP throw
(ADVP-MNR well))
and
(VP catch
(ADVP-MNR badly))))
- Clause coordination
When like clauses are coordinated, the level of coordination has the same
label as the coordinated clauses.
(S (S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP threw
(NP the ball)))
and
(S (NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP caught
(NP it))))
(S (NP-SBJ Jackie)
(VP knew
(SBAR (SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP threw
(NP the ball))))
and
(SBAR (WHNP-2 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-2)
(VP caught
(NP it)))))))
Coordinated unlike clauses are dominated by S.
(S (S (NP-SBJ He)
(VP was
(VP performing
(PP for
(NP pay)))))
, and
(SBARQ (WHADVP-1 why)
(SQ should
(NP-SBJ anyone)
(VP expect
(NP (NP anything)
(ADJP more))
(ADVP-PRP *T*-1))))
?)
Note that coordination of unlike phrases (i.e., non-clauses) is dominated
by UCP (Unlike Coordinated Phrase).
- Coordinating conjunctions
Besides the usual and, or, but, etc., certain prepositions and
subordinating conjunctions can be used as coordinating conjunctions.
Multi-word coordinating conjunctions are labeled CONJP (see
section 7 [Coordination]).
(S (NP-SBJ Willie
(CONJP as well as)
Casey)
(VP saw
(NP the ball)))
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP will
(VP throw
(NP the ball)
(NP-TMP tomorrow
(CONJP if not)
today))))
Otherwise, these are annotated as PPs or SBARs, as appropriate. (See
section 7 [Coordination].)
(S (SBAR-ADV if
(FRAG not
(NP today)))
,
(NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP will
(VP throw
(NP the ball)
(NP-TMP tomorrow))))
1.3.2 Subordination: the use of SBAR
See section 9 [WH-Phrases] and section 10 [Subordinate Clauses] for more detail.
- Relative clauses are adjoined to the NP that they modify.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The person)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP caught
(NP the ball)))))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD very athletic)))
- SBARs can be verbal complements.
(S (NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP knew
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP hid
(NP the ball))))))
- Conditional, temporal, and other such adverbial SBARs are
attached under either S or VP, depending on whether they precede or follow
the main clause, and given the appropriate adverbial function tag.
(S (SBAR-ADV if
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP throws
(NP the ball))))
(NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP catches
(NP it)))
(S (NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP catches
(NP the ball)
(SBAR-ADV if
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP throws
(NP it))))))
1.3.3 Fronted elements
Fronted elements are those that appear before the subject in a declarative
sentence. They are placed inside the top clause level (e.g. S, SINV, SQ,
SBAR). (See the section on -TPC in section 2 [Notation] for more details on the
use of the -TPC tag and the section on *T* with fronted elements in
section 4 [Null Elements] for more details on the distribution of *T*.)
- Fronted arguments.
Fronted arguments are attached under the main clause level. They always
leave a *T* and are tagged -TPC. This holds whether the argument is
fronted within a single clause or crosses more than one clause boundary.
(S (NP-TPC-5 This)
(NP-SBJ every man)
(VP contains
(NP *T*-5)
(PP-LOC within
(NP him))))
- Fronted adjuncts.
Fronted adjuncts receive function tags (e.g, -ADV, -TMP) as appropriate.
However, note that they receive the -TPC label only in cases where they are
associated with a *T* in a lower clause. In particular, a *T* appears in
the annotation only if the adjunct is fronted over more than one clause
boundary:
(S (PP-TPC-1 Excluding
(NP (NP (NP an increase)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the tax rate)))
and
(NP (NP the effects)
(PP of
(NP foreign currency translations)))))
,
(NP-SBJ Mr. Millis)
(VP said
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ (NP the company 's)
results)
``
(VP were
(ADVP still)
(ADJP-PRD (NP-ADV a little)
disappointing)
(PP *T*-1)))))
. '')
(S (SBAR-ADV-TPC-1 If
(S (NP-SBJ profits)
(VP do n't
(VP improve))))
,
(NP-SBJ Mr. Whitten)
(VP says
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP may
(VP quit
(NP the exchange)
(SBAR-ADV *T*-1))))))
.)
There is no *T* in the annotation if the adjunct is fronted within a single
clause:
(S (NP-TMP Yesterday)
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP went
(PP-DIR to
(NP the store))))
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP Running
(PP-DIR toward
(NP Casey))))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 Willie)
(VP caught
(NP the ball)))
(S (SBAR-TMP (WHADVP-7 When)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP do n't
(VP get
(NP enough sleep)
(ADVP-TMP *T*-7)))))
(NP-SBJ-8 I)
(VP have
(NP (NP trouble)
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-8)
(VP staying
(ADJP-PRD awake))))))
Elements that are fronted within questions (either wh- or yes/no)
are put inside the highest level of structure (SBARQ or SQ, respectively).
(SBARQ (SBAR-ADV If
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP throws
(NP the ball))))
(WHNP-1 who)
(SQ will
(NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP catch
(NP it)))
?)
(SQ (SBAR-ADV If
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP throws
(NP the ball))))
will
(NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP catch
(NP it))
?)
1.3.4 Quotations
-
Direct quotations
A direct quotation is considered to be the argument of the verb of saying.
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP said
``
(S (NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP caught
(NP the ball))))
.
'')
When the quotation appears before the quoting verb, it treated as a fronted
argument: the quote is attached at S level and given a -TPC tag, and a
trace is shown under the VP.
(S ``
(S-TPC-1 (NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP caught
(NP the ball)))
,
''
(NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP said
(S *T*-1))
.)
(SINV ``
(S-TPC-1 (NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP caught
(NP the ball)))
,
''
(VP said
(S *T*-1))
(NP-SBJ Casey)
.)
If the quotation is discontinuous, the interruptive material is annotated
as a parenthetical (-PRN). Note that a trace appears under the VP in the
parenthetical, but that the fronted portion is not labeled -TPC:
(S-7 ``
(NP-SBJ Willie)
''
(PRN ,
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP said
(S *T*-7)))
,)
``
(VP caught
(NP the ball))
.
'')
- Indirect quotations
The (SBAR 0) level marks indirect quotations and cases where only a portion
of the quote is direct.
(S (NP-SBJ Stokely)
(VP says
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ stores)
(VP revive
(NP (NP specials)
(PP like
(NP (NP three cans)
(PP of
(NP peas))
(PP for
(NP 99 cents)))))))))
.)
(S (NP-SBJ Mr. Millis)
(VP said
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ (NP the company 's)
results)
``
(VP were
(ADVP still)
(ADJP-PRD (NP-ADV a little)
disappointing)))))
. '')
See section 7 [Coordination] for more details on gapping.
-
Intrasentential gapping
When the gapped construction exists alongside a complete (ungapped) clause
of parallel structure, the complete clause is used as a template to which
elements in the gapped clause are mapped via the “=” notation (referred
to as “gap coindexing”).
(S (S (NP-SBJ-1 Mary)
(VP likes
(NP-2 Bach)))
and
(S (NP-SBJ=1 Susan)
,
(NP=2 Beethoven)))
In the above, the equal sign notation maps constituent NP=1 over NP-1 so
that the following predicate argument structure can be extracted: like (Mary, Bach) and like (Susan, Beethoven). Similarly:
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP (VP gave => GIVE (John, Mary, book)
(NP-1 Mary)
(NP-2 a book))
and
(VP (NP=1 Bill) => GIVE (John, Bill, pencil)
(NP=2 a pencil))))
All constituents in gapped constructions receive function tags as
appropriate.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP (VP eat
(NP-1 breakfast)
(PP-TMP-2 in
(NP the morning)))
and
(VP (NP=1 lunch)
(PP-TMP=2 in
(NP the afternoon)))))
- Intersentential gapping
The template approach to gapping is not used across sentences. If a
template is not available within the same sentence, the gapped constituent
is labeled FRAG instead.
What is Tim eating? Mary Ann thinks chocolate.
(S (NP-SBJ Mary Ann)
(VP thinks
(SBAR 0
(FRAG (NP chocolate)))))
2 Notation
In the present corpus, each bracket is labeled for at least 1 syntactic
category but may have as many as 4 function tags. In
previous Treebank releases, only standard syntactic labels (e.g. NP, ADVP,
PP, etc.) were used to label constituents; every
bracket had just one label. The limitations of this system become apparent
when a word or phrase that belongs to one syntactic category is used for
some other function or when it plays a role that is not easily identified
without special annotation.
In addition to the function tags, we have also augmented our annotation
with the coindexation of null elements and several varieties of
“pseudo-attach”.
2.1 Bracket labels
2.1.1 Clause level
See section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] for a fuller explanation of the use(s) of each of these
labels.
-
.2 ex plus .1 ex minus .1 ex
S
- — Simple declarative clause, i.e. one that is not introduced by a
(possibly empty) subordinating conjunction or wh-word and that
does not exhibit subject-verb inversion.
- SBAR
- — Clause introduced by a (possibly empty) subordinating conjunction.
- SBARQ
- — Direct question introduced by a wh-word or wh-phrase. See
section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure]. Indirect questions and relative clauses
should be bracketed as SBAR, not SBARQ.
- SINV
- — Inverted declarative sentence, i.e. one in which the subject
follows the tensed verb or modal.
- SQ
- — Inverted yes/no question, or main clause of a wh-question,
following the wh-phrase in SBARQ.
2.1.2 Phrase level
-
.2 ex plus .1 ex minus .1 ex
ADJP
- — Adjective Phrase. Phrasal category headed by an adjective
(including comparative and superlative adjectives). Example: outrageously expensive.
- ADVP
- — Adverb Phrase. Phrasal category headed by an adverb
(including comparative and superlative adverbs). Examples: rather
timidly, very well indeed, rapidly.
- CONJP
- — Conjunction Phrase. Used to mark certain “multi-word”
conjunctions, such as as well as, instead of.
- FRAG
- — Fragment. (see section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure])
- INTJ
- — Interjection. Corresponds approximately to the
part-of-speech tag UH (see the POS guidelines [Santorini 1990]).
- LST
- — List marker. Includes surrounding punctuation. (see
section 24 [Numbered Lists])
- NAC
- — Not A Constituent; used to show the scope of certain prenominal
modifiers within a noun phrase.
- NP
- — Noun Phrase. Phrasal category that includes all constituents
that depend on a head noun.
- NX
- — Used within certain complex noun phrases to mark the head of the
noun phrase. Corresponds very roughly to N-bar level but used
quite differently.
- PP
- — Prepositional Phrase. Phrasal category headed by a preposition.
- PRN
- — Parenthetical. (See section 2.6 below
for a complete description.)
- PRT
- — Particle. Category for words that should be tagged RP, as
described in the POS guidelines [Santorini 1990], with some guidance from [Quirk et al. 1985] sections
16.3-16 in tricky ADVP vs. PRT decisions (but note that the
Treebank notion of particle is somewhat different from that of
Quirk et al.).
- QP
- — Quantifier Phrase (i.e., complex measure/amount phrase); used
within NP. (see section 11 [Modification of NP])
- RRC
- — Reduced Relative Clause. (see section 13 [Gerunds and Participles])
- UCP
- — Unlike Coordinated Phrase.
- VP
- — Verb Phrase. Phrasal category headed a verb.
- WHADJP
- — Wh-adjective Phrase. Adjectival phrase containing a
wh-adverb, as in how hot.
- WHADVP
- — Wh-adverb Phrase. Introduces a clause with an
ADVP gap. May be null (containing the 0 complementizer) or
lexical, containing a wh-adverb such as how or why.
- WHNP
- — Wh-noun Phrase. Introduces a clause with an NP
gap. May be null (containing the 0 complementizer) or
lexical, containing some wh-word, e.g. who, which
book, whose daughter, none of which, or how
many leopards.
- WHPP
- — Wh-prepositional Phrase. Prepositional phrase
containing a wh-noun phrase (such as of which or by
whose authority) that either introduces a PP gap or is contained
by a WHNP.
- X
- — Unknown, uncertain, or unbracketable. X is often used for
bracketing typos
and in bracketing the...the-constructions (see section 10 [Subordinate Clauses] and
section 25 [Correlative the-Clauses]).
2.2 Function tags
2.2.1 Form/function discrepancies
- -ADV (adverbial)
- — marks a constituent other than
ADVP or PP when it is used adverbially (e.g., NPs or free (“headless”)
relatives). However, constituents that themselves are modifying an ADVP
generally do not get -ADV.
(ADJP (NP-ADV a little bit)
angry)
(S (NP-SBJ You)
(VP can
(VP leave
(SBAR-ADV if
(S (NP-SBJ-8 you)
(ADVP really)
(VP want
(S (NP-SBJ *-8)
(VP to
(VP go)))))))))
If there is a more specific adverbial tag available (i.e. one of the tags
listed in section 2.2.3 below), the more
specific tag is assumed to imply -ADV and is used alone. Thus in the
following example, the -TMP tag on yesterday implies -ADV.
(S (NP-SBJ He)
(VP left
(NP-TMP yesterday)))
NOT:
(NP-ADV-TMP yesterday)
Nouns such as today, which often behave adverbially, are labeled NP
when they appear in argument position.
(S (NP-SBJ Today)
(VP is
(NP-PRD (NP the first day)
(PP of
(NP (NP the rest)
(PP of
(NP your life)))))))
- -NOM (nominal)
- — marks free (“headless”) relatives and gerunds
when they act nominally. (See section 9 [WH-Phrases] for more information about free
relatives, and section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for more information about gerunds.)
(S (SBAR-NOM-SBJ (WHNP-10 What)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(ADVP really)
(VP like
(NP *T*-10))))
(VP is
(NP-PRD chocolate)))
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Baking
(NP pies)))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD fun)))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP do
not
(VP mind
(PP about
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ your)
(VP leaving
(ADVP-TMP early)))))))
Note that other non-NP constituents are not tagged -NOM when they appear in
argument positions (e.g., infinitivals, PPs), though they do get -SBJ when
they occur in subject position.
(S (S-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP To
(VP have
(VP refused))))
(VP would
(VP have
(VP been
(NP-PRD political suicide)))))
(S (PP-SBJ (PP From
(NP proud pool-owners))
(PP to
(NP perpetual hosts and handymen)))
(VP was
(NP-PRD a short step)))
2.2.2 Grammatical role
- -DTV (dative)
- — marks the dative object in the unshifted form of
the double object construction.
If the preposition introducing the “dative” object is for, it is
considered benefactive (see -BNF on
page ??).
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP asked
(NP a question)
(PP-DTV of
(NP the president))))
(S (NP-SBJ Aristotle)
(VP gave
(NP the book)
(PP-DTV to
(NP Plato))))
Compare with the shifted
(S (NP-SBJ Aristotle)
(VP gave
(NP Plato)
(NP the book)))
Other verbs have semantically similar complements that could be considered
“dative” objects. However, -DTV (or -BNF) is only used after verbs that
can undergo dative shift. Other putative datives are annotated with -CLR.
(S (NP-SBJ He)
(VP donated
(NP money)
(PP-CLR to
(NP the museum))))
- -LGS (logical subject)
- — is used to mark the logical subject in
passives. It attaches to the NP object of by and not to the PP node
itself.
(S (NP-SBJ-7 That)
(VP was
(VP painted
(NP *-7)
(PP by
(NP-LGS Mark)))))
- -PRD (predicate)
- — marks any predicate that is not VP.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP consider
(S (NP-SBJ Kris)
(NP-PRD a fool))))
(SQ Was
(NP-SBJ he)
(ADVP-TMP ever)
(ADJP-PRD successful)
?)
In do so constructions, the so is annotated as a predicate.
(S (NP-SBJ They)
(ADVP also)
(VP did
(ADVP-PRD so)))
(SINV and
(ADVP-PRD-TPC-1 so)
(VP did
(ADVP-PRD *T*-1))
(NP-SBJ the hippopotamuses))
- -PUT
- — marks the locative complement of put.
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP put
(NP the book)
(PP-PUT on
(NP the table))))
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP put
(NP the book)
(ADVP-PUT there)))
It does not go on just any complement or child of put:
(S (NP-SBJ They)
(VP put
(NP the baby)
(PRT down)))
(S (NP-SBJ She)
(VP put
(NP it)
(ADVP-MNR bluntly)))
- -SBJ (surface subject)
- — marks the structural surface subject of
both matrix and embedded clauses, including those with null subjects.
- -TPC (“topicalized”)
- — marks elements that appear
before the subject in a declarative sentence, but in two cases only:
(i) if the fronted element is associated with a *T* in the position
of the gap.
(ii) if the fronted element is left-dislocated (i.e., it is
associated with a resumptive pronoun in the position of the gap). (See
the section on fronted elements in section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] for more details on the
treatment of fronted elements and the section on *T* with fronted
elements in section 4 [Null Elements] for more details on the distribution of *T*.)
(S (PP-TPC-12 Of
(NP (NP the 500 barbers)
(PP-LOC in
(NP Philadelphia))))
,
(NP-SBJ (NP (QP only 10))
(PP *T*-12))
(VP know
(SBAR (WHNP-13 what)
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP are
(VP doing
(NP *T*-13)))))))
- -VOC (vocative)
- — marks nouns of address, regardless of their
position in the sentence. It is not coindexed to the subject and does not
get -TPC when it is sentence-initial.
(SQ (NP-VOC Mike)
,
would
(NP-SBJ you)
(INTJ please)
(VP close
(NP the door))
?)
2.2.3 Adverbials
Adverbials are generally VP adjuncts.
-
-BNF (benefactive)
- — marks the beneficiary of an action (attaches
to NP or PP).
This tag is used only when (1) the verb can undergo dative shift and
(2) the prepositional variant (with the same meaning) uses for. The
prepositional objects of dative-shifting verbs with other prepositions than
for (such as to or of) are annotated -DTV.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP baked
(NP-BNF Doug)
(NP a cake)))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP baked
(NP a cake)
(PP-BNF for
(NP Doug))))
- -DIR (direction)
- — marks adverbials that answer the questions
“from where?” and “to where?” It implies motion, which can be
metaphorical as in “...rose 5 pts. to 57-1/2” or “increased
70% to 5.8 billion yen” (see section 23 [“Financialspeak”
Conventions]). -DIR is most often
used with verbs of motion/transit and financial verbs:
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP flew
(PP-DIR from
(NP Tokyo))
(PP-DIR to
(NP New York))))
- -EXT (extent)
- — marks adverbial phrases that describe the spatial
extent of an activity. -EXT was incorporated primarily for cases of
movement in financial space, but is also used in analogous situations
elsewhere.
(S (NP-SBJ the Dow Jones Industrial Average)
(VP plunged
(NP-EXT 190.58 points)))
(S (NP-SBJ She)
(VP walked
(NP-EXT 5 miles)))
Obligatory complements do not receive -EXT:
(S (NP-SBJ The sumo wrestler)
(VP gained
(NP 80 pounds)))
Words such as fully and completely are absolutes and do not receive -EXT.
- -LOC (locative)
- — marks adverbials that indicate place/setting of
the event.
(PP-LOC on
(NP the moon))
-LOC may also indicate metaphorical location. For example, the following
receive the -LOC tag:
(PP-LOC amongst
(NP yourselves))
(NP (NP a drop)
(PP-LOC in domestic truck sales))
whereas these do not:
(NP (NP interest)
(PP in anthropology))
(NP (NP 5 dollars)
(PP in
(NP stocks)))
(PP on
(NP (NP grounds)
(PP of ...)))
(PP in
(NP other respects))
(PP under
(NP pressure))
(PP under
(NP the gun))
There is likely to be some variation in the use of -LOC due to differing
annotator interpretations. In cases where the annotator is faced with
choosing between -LOC or -TMP, the default is -LOC:
(PP-LOC in
(NP an interview))
(PP-LOC in
(NP active trading))
In cases of apposition involving SBAR, the SBAR should not be labeled -LOC.
(NP (NP Minneapolis)
,
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 where)
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD cold)
(ADVP-LOC *T*-1)))))
-LOC has some uses that are not adverbial, such as with place names that
are adjoined to other NPs and NAC-LOC premodifiers of NPs (see
section 11 [Modification of NP]). The special tag -PUT, listed on
page ??, is used for the locative
argument of put.
- -MNR (manner)
- — marks adverbials that indicate manner, including
instrument phrases.
(S (NP She)
(VP waited
(ADVP-MNR impatiently)))
(S (NP-SBJ She)
(VP hit
(NP the nail)
(PP-MNR with
(NP a hammer))))
(S (NP-SBJ-14 She)
(VP surprised
(NP him)
(PP-MNR by
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-14)
(VP eating
(NP a horse)
(ADVP-MNR alone))))))
- -PRP (purpose or reason)
- — marks purpose or reason clauses and PPs.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Chevron)
(VP had
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP shut
(PRT down)
(NP (NP a crude-oil pipeline)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the Bay area))))))
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP check
(PP-CLR for
(NP leaks)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ the Dow Jones Transportation Average)
(VP went
(ADVP-DIR down)
,
(PP-PRP due
(ADVP largely)
(PP to
(NP (NP further selling)
(PP-LOC in
(NP UAL)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP activity)
(PP-LOC at
(NP (NP a number)
(PP of
(NP (ADJP San Francisco-based)
brokerage houses)))))
(VP was
(VP curtailed
(NP *-1)
(PP-PRP as
(NP (NP a result)
(PP of
(NP the earthquake)))))))
- -TMP (temporal)
- — marks temporal or aspectual adverbials that
answer the questions when, how often, or how long.
It has some uses that are not strictly adverbial, such as with dates that
modify other NPs (see section 11 [Modification of NP]).
at S- or VP-level:
(S (NP-SBJ Egg bread)
(VP loses
(NP some zip)
(SBAR-TMP (WHADVP-2 when)
(S (NP-SBJ the eggs)
(VP come
(PP-LOC-CLR in
(NP 30-pound cans)
(ADVP-TMP *T*-2)))))))
(S (ADVP-TMP Meanwhile)
,
(NP-SBJ (NP the bottom end)
(PP of
(NP the market)))
(VP is
(VP becoming
(ADJP-PRD less loyal))))
(S (NP-SBJ Brand loyalty)
(VP has
(VP eroded
(PP-TMP during
(NP the 1980s)))))
(S (NP-SBJ-2 it)
(VP will
(VP remove
(NP the objectionable tropical oil)
(PP-TMP by
(NP year end)))))
modifying NPs:
(S (NP-SBJ the 26-man Politburo)
(VP had
(VP asked
(PP-CLR for
(NP his resignation))
(PP-LOC at
(NP (NP a separate meeting)
(NP-TMP late Tuesday))))))
(NP (NP his (ADJP first and only) state visit)
(PP to
(NP Bonn))
(ADVP-TMP (NP two years)
ago))
In cases of apposition involving SBAR, the SBAR should not be labeled -TMP.
(PP-TMP in
(NP (NP 1992)
,
(SBAR (WHADVP-4 when)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(ADVP-TMP first)
(VP learned
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP was
(NP-PRD a Martian)
(ADVP-TMP *T*-4)))))))))
in ADJP:
(NP (NP (NP Penn Treebank Corp. 's)
(ADJP 14.7 %)
bonds)
(ADJP due
(NP-TMP 2009)))
Only in “financialspeak,” and only when the dominating PP is a PP-DIR,
may temporal modifiers be put at PP object level, as in this example:
(S (NP-SBJ unconsolidated pretax profit)
(VP increased
(PP-DIR to
(NP (QP 12.12 billion) yen))
,
(PP-DIR from
(NP (QP 7.12 billion) yen)
(ADVP-TMP (NP a year)
ago))))
Note that -TMP is not used in possessive phrases:
(NP (NP 1950 's)
conservative tendencies)
2.2.4 Miscellaneous
- -CLR (closely related)
- — marks constituents that
occupy some middle ground between argument and adjunct of the verb phrase.
These roughly correspond to “predication adjuncts” , prepositional ditransitives ,
and some “phrasal verbs” , as defined in [Quirk et al. 1985].
Although constituents marked with -CLR are not strictly speaking
complements, they are treated as complements whenever it makes a bracketing
difference (see the section on fronting in section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] and *RNR*-attach
in section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers]).
The precise meaning of -CLR depends somewhat on the category of its phrase:
- on S or SBAR
- — These categories are usually arguments, so the -CLR
tag indicates that the clause is more adverbial than normal clausal
arguments. The most common case is the infinitival semicomplement of use, but there are a variety of other cases (see section 14 [Infinitives]).
- on PP, ADVP, SBAR-PRP, etc.
- — On categories that are ordinarily
interpreted as (adjunct) adverbials, -CLR indicates a somewhat closer
relationship to the verb. For example:
- Prepositional Ditransitives
In order to ensure consistency, the Treebank recognizes only a limited
class of verbs that take more than one complement, as described in this
section (-DTV on page ?? and -PUT
on page ??) and in
section 15 [Small Clauses]. Verbs that fall outside these classes (including most of the
prepositional ditransitive verbs in class [D2] in [Quirk et al. 1985]) are often
annotated with -CLR:
(VP associate
(NP snow)
(PP-CLR with
(NP winter)))
(VP donate
(NP your time)
(PP-CLR to
(NP a good cause)))
- Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are also annotated with -CLR or a combination of PRT and
PP-CLR.
(VP pay
(PP-CLR for
(NP 500 shares)))
(VP adjust
(PP-CLR for
(NP inflation)))
(VP put
(PRT up)
(PP-CLR with
(NP the nuisance)))
Words that are considered borderline between particle and adverb are often
bracketed with ADVP-CLR.
(VP looking
(ADVP-CLR forward)
(PP-CLR to
(NP their winter meeting)))
- Predication Adjuncts
Many of Quirk's predication adjuncts (see [Quirk et al. 1985], especially sections
8.27–35, 15.22, & 16.48) are annotated with -CLR.
(VP place
(NP the flour)
(PP-LOC-CLR in
(NP the sifter)))
(S (NP-SBJ She)
(VP sat
(PP-LOC-CLR in
(NP the chair))))
(S (NP-SBJ He)
(VP kissed
(NP his mother)
(PP-CLR on
(NP the cheek))))
- on NP
- — To the extent that -CLR is used on noun phrases, it
indicates that the NP is part of some kind of “fixed phrase” or
expression, such as take care of.
(VP taking
(NP-CLR care)
(PP-CLR of
(NP the problem)))
(S (NP-SBJ their meeting)
(ADVP-TMP never)
(VP took
(NP-CLR place)))
Variation is more likely for NPs than for other uses of -CLR.
- -CLF (cleft)
- — marks it-clefts (“true” clefts) and may be added
to the labels S, SINV, or SQ. See section 16 [Clefts].
(SQ-CLF Was
(NP-SBJ it)
(NP-PRD (NP John's)
car)
(SBAR (WHNP-6 0)
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP borrowed
(NP *T*-6))))
?)
- -HLN (headline)
- — marks headlines and datelines. Note that
headlines and datelines always constitute a unit of text that is
structurally independent from the following sentence.
( (NP-HLN (NP The end)
(PP of
(NP Trujillo))))
( (S (NP-SBJ (NP Assassination)
(PRN ,
(PP (ADVP even)
of
(NP a tyrant))
,))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD repulsive
(PP to
(NP (NP men)
(PP of
(NP good conscience))))))
.))
( (NP-HLN (NP-LOC Chicago , IL)
,
(NP-TMP May 8)
--))
( (S A fire broke out in an abandoned building .))
- -TTL (title)
- — is attached to the top node of a title when this
title appears inside running text.
-TTL implies -NOM. The internal
structure of the title is bracketed as usual. (See section 12 [Titles] for more
information about the bracketing of titles.)
(SQ Have
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP read
(S-TTL (NP-SBJ *)
(VP To
(VP Kill
(NP A Mockingbird)))))
?)
(S ``
(NP-TTL-SBJ-1 Omphalos)
''
(VP was
(VP painted
(NP *-1)
(PP by
(NP-LGS Mark)))))
2.3 Null elements
See section 4 [Null Elements] for more on the annotation of null elements.
-
.2 ex plus .1 ex minus .1 ex
*T*
- — trace of A′-movement
- (NP *)
- — arbitrary PRO, controlled PRO, and trace of A-movement
- 0
- — the null complementizer
- *U*
- — unit
- *?*
- — placeholder for ellipsed material
- *NOT*
- — anti-placeholder in template gapping
The “pseudo-attach” elements (listed in
section 2.5) are also
essentially null elements.
2.4 Coindexing
See section 4 [Null Elements] for more detailed information.
2.4.1 The identity index
The number that follows a bracket tag serves as an identity
index (ID number) for that constituent:
(WHNP-1 What). Identity
indices only appear when necessary, e.g., when there is a corresponding
null element.
2.4.2 The reference index
The number that follows the null element is called its reference
index: (NP *T*-1). It should correspond to the identity index of the
constituent with which the null is associated. If the null is not
associated with a constituent in the same sentence, it does not receive an
index.
(S (NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP knew
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP threw
(NP the ball))))))
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 Who)
(SQ was
(NP-SBJ-2 *T*-1)
(VP believed
(S (NP-SBJ-3 *-2)
(VP to
(VP have
(VP been
(VP shot
(NP *-3))))))))
?)
2.5 Pseudo-attach
Pseudo-attach is a method of showing that non-adjacent constituents are
related. There are four different types of pseudo-attach, each of which is
described in detail in section 5 [Pseudo-Attach]. The pseudo attach copy bears a reference
index corresponding to the identity index of the displaced constituent.
The different types of pseudo-attach are:
-
.2 ex plus .1 ex minus .1 ex
*EXP*
- — Expletive (extraposition)
- *ICH*
- — Interpret Constituent Here (discontinuous dependency)
- *PPA*
- — Permanent Predictable Ambiguity (ambiguity)
- *RNR*
- — Right Node Raising (shared complements)
2.6 Parentheticals
Parenthetical elements are dominated by a node labeled PRN. Punctuation
marks that set off a parenthetical (i.e., commas, dashes, parentheses
(-LRB- and -RRB-)) are contained within the PRN node. Use of PRN is
determined ultimately by individual annotator intuition, though the
presence of dashes or parentheses strongly suggests a parenthetical.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP Assassination)
(PRN ,
(PP (ADVP even)
of
(NP a tyrant))
,))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD repulsive)
(PP to
(NP (NP men)
(PP of
(NP good conscience))))))
(S (NP-TMP (NP Every day)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP delay
(NP-TMP *T*-1)))))
,
(NP-SBJ (NP (NP a savings institution 's) health)
(PRN --
and
(NP the federal budget deficit)
--))
(VP grows
(ADJP-PRD worse)))
(S (NP-SBJ Casey)
(VP threw
(NP the
(ADJP red
(PRN (S (ADVP at least)
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP think
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD red)))))))
and
green
(PRN or
(S (ADVP maybe)
(NP-SBJ it)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD blue)))))
ball)))
3 Punctuation
3.1 Basic guidelines
In this corpus, each unit of text is enclosed in a top level of unlabeled
brackets (which generally come out as TOP in the output of the tgrep
program). Formerly, top-level punctuation (i.e., initial and final
punctuation) could be attached to these top-level brackets. However, in
this release, such punctuation should all be attached one level down (to
the highest level of labeled brackets), so that there is only one
top-level node within the unlabeled brackets.
For the sake of simplicity, these unlabeled outer brackets are usually
omitted in examples in this manual, and initial and final punctuation are
frequently removed as well. However, in this section they are generally
included, for greater clarity and precision.
3.1.1 Mid-sentence punctuation
(braces/parentheses, commas, colons, dashes, quotation marks, semicolons)
-
Paired punctuation
Paired punctuation marks are siblings of the constituent they surround.
This is true even when the opening or closing member of the pair can be
viewed as deleted. For instance, the commas that set off a subordinate
clause or a relative clause from a main clause are siblings of the SBAR
dominating the subordinate clause. Similarly, the commas that set off
appositives are siblings of the appositive phrase and children of the NP
dominating the entire apposition structure.
Commas setting off appositive phrase:
( (S (NP-SBJ (NP John)
,
(NP my brother)
,)
(VP left)
.))
Commas setting off a parenthetical S:
( (S-1 (PP-TMP For
(NP (NP the rest)
(PP of
(NP 1989))))
(PRN ,
(S (NP-SBJ Mr. Hagen)
(VP said
(SBAR 0
(S *T*-1))))
,)
(NP-SBJ (NP Conrail 's)
traffic and revenue)
``
(VP will
(VP reflect
(NP the sluggish economy)))
.))
Commas setting off a subordinate clause:
( (S (SBAR-ADV If
(S (NP-SBJ-1 the judge)
(VP is
(VP impeached
(NP *-1)))))
,
(SBAR-ADV as
(S (NP-SBJ-2 *)
(VP is
(VP thought
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(ADJP-PRD likely))))))
,
(NP-SBJ-3 he)
(VP will
(VP be
(VP removed
(NP *-3)
(PP-DIR from
(NP office))
(ADVP-TMP immediately))))
.))
Braces, parentheses, dashes.
Dashes may appear as standard double hyphens (“--”) or as single
hyphens (“-”).
In order to distinguish annotation brackets from brackets that were part of
the original text, original brackets are shown with codes:
- parentheses ()
- are indicated with -LRB- (for Left Round Bracket)
and -RRB- (for Right Round Bracket).
- braces {}
- are indicated with -LCB- and -RCB-
(for Left/Right Curly Bracket).
- brackets []
- are indicated with -LSB- and -RSB- (for
Left/Right Square Bracket), but note that the only square brackets in
all published versions of the WSJ corpus are right brackets that appear to
act as exclamation points.
Most things set off by parentheses or dashes are labeled PRN. Annotator
intuition of the interruptiveness of the potential PRN is also a deciding
factor in whether or not a word or phrase is labeled PRN; one of the
characteristics annotators look for is a compressed pitch range when the
sentence is read aloud.
Arguments should never be labeled PRN, though on occasion they have been,
due to overzealous annotating.
In particular, braces frequently indicate rewording of the quote, so they
should almost never get PRN, though occasionally a PRN is appropriate.
Thus, John (my brother) left, should be bracketed:
( (S (NP-SBJ (NP John)
(PRN -LRB-
(NP my brother)
-RRB-))
(VP left)
.))
and “I think {the president} is foolish.” should be bracketed:
( (S ``
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP think
(SBAR 0
(S -LCB-
(NP-SBJ the president)
-RCB-
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD foolish)))))
.
''))
Quotation marks.
These should go outside whatever they surround
whenever possible, and when it isn't possible they just get yanked around
by whatever is inside them. They are at the very bottom of the pecking
order.
In this example the second of the pair of quotes gets yanked to S-level by
the comma:
( (SINV (S-2 (NP-SBJ Japanese agencies)
(VP (VP do
(NP business)
(PP with
(NP (NP rival clients)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the same industry)))))
,
(NP-ADV (NP a practice)
``
(SBAR (WHNP-1 that)
(S (NP *T* -1)
(VP would
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD unacceptable)
(PP by
(NP traditional Western
conflict rules)))))))))
,
''
(VP says
(SBAR 0
(S *T* -2)))
(NP-SBJ Roy Warman)
.))
Similarly, when close quotes follow a period, the period takes precedence,
i.e. both are attached high:
( (S (NP-SBJ Mr. Lorin)
(VP responded
, ``
(INTJ No))
. ''))
( (S ``
(NP-SBJ It)
(VP 's
not
(NP-PRD (NP the end)
(PP of
(NP the world)))
(SBAR-ADV if
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP shake
(NP them)
(PRT up)
(NP-ADV a little bit)))))
. ''))
Note in the above example how the quotation marks are attached inside
the highest S.
Exception to the siblings rule for paired punctuation:
when an
S inside an SBAR is headed by a phrase set off by paired commas, the first
comma is placed inside the SBAR, not the S:
( (S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP think
(SBAR that
,
(S (PP-TMP at
(NP all times))
,
(NP-SBJ Mark)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD wrong)))))
.))
However, if the annotator had a strong intuition that the phrase which
interjects between the SBAR and the S is a parenthetical remark, he/she may
have done the following:
(SBAR that
(PRN ,
(PP in
(NP (NP Mr. Letterman 's)
words))
,)
(S ...))
- Unpaired punctuation
Unpaired punctuation intervenes between constituents at the highest
possible dividing level:
( (S (PP-TMP In
(NP 1988))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 Dallas-based Sterling)
(VP protested
(NP (NP a similar decision)
(PP by
(NP NASA))
(VP involving
(NP the same contract)))
,
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP claiming
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP had
(VP submitted
(NP the lowest bid))))))))
.))
Colons:
In the sentence He founded his own company: Crumbly
Crackers, Crumbly Crackers is in apposition to his own
company. The entire sequence his own company: Crumbly Crackers
should hence be represented as an adjunction structure, and the colon
should be a child of the NP dominating the entire sequence:
(NP (NP his own company)
:
(NP Crumbly Crackers))
Colons in more colorful environments have received various treatments, some
of which are shown below:
as sentence-ending punctuation:
( (S (NP-SBJ (NP Variation)
(PP of
(NP temperature)))
(VP gives
(NP the following results))
:))
( (S (NP-SBJ (NP an increase)
(PP in
(NP temperature)))
(VP leads
(PP-DIR to
(NP (NP an increase)
(PP of
(NP the critical passivation current density)))))
.))
with pseudo-attach:
( (S (NP-SBJ (NP 2 books)
(NP *ICH*-1))
(VP are
(VP recommended
(PP-MNR with
(NP gusto))
:
(NP-1 (NP-TTL Harriet the Spy)
and
(NP-TTL Charlotte's Web))))
.))
3.1.2 Final punctuation
- Final punctuation
Final punctuation as a rule is a child of the highest level of structure.
Thus, This is John, my brother, should be bracketed:
( (S (NP-SBJ This)
(VP is
(NP-PRD (NP John)
,
(NP my brother)))
.))
- Abbreviation sharing period at end of sentence
When an abbreviation is the last word in a sentence and its period also
serves as the sentence-ending period, the period is attached high rather
than to the abbreviated word. If the programs that tokenize the text leave
the period attached to the abbreviation, the period is manually split from
the abbreviation so that the sentence has final punctuation.
( (S (NP-SBJ-1 UAL)
(VP remains
(ADJP-PRD obligated
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP pay
(NP (NP (QP $ 26.7 million) *U*)
(PP in
(NP fees)))
(PP-DTV to
(NP Salomon Brothers Inc)))))))
.))
3.2 Miscellaneous
3.2.1 Symbols functioning as words
Hyphens and other symbols functioning as words are annotated according
to their lexical function. Hyphens, for example, are labeled PP when they
act prepositionally:
(PP (PP from
(NP 12))
(PP -
(NP 15)))
3.2.2 Mathematical symbols
Mathematical symbols such as +, -, x, =, etc., are annotated according to
their lexical function. For example, “=” is labeled a VP:
(S (NP-SBJ x)
(VP =
(NP 3)))
Three dots (...), usually indicating ellipsis, are treated as a single
unit of medial punctuation. Four dots, usually indicating ellipsis at the
end of a sentence, are treated as a three-dot ellipsis followed by a
period.
( (S (NP-SBJ-2 (NP the leadership)
(PP of
(NP the Socialist Unity Party)))
,
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP being
(ADJP-PRD sensitive
(PP to
(NP the demands of the time)))))
,
...
(VP will
(VP find
(NP (NP solutions)
(PP to
(NP (NP complicated problems)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ the German Democratic Republic)
(VP encountered
(NP *T*-1)))))))))
... .))
4 Null Elements
4.1 The building blocks
The inventory of null elements is
-
.2 ex plus .1 ex minus .1 ex*T*
- (trace of A′-movement, including parasitic gaps)
- (NP *)
- (arbitrary PRO, controlled PRO, and trace of A-movement)
- 0
- (null complementizer, including null wh-operator)
- *U*
- (unit)
- *?*
- (placeholder for ellipsed material)
- *NOT*
- (anti-placeholder in template gapping)
- *RNR*
- (pseudo-attach: right node raising)
- *ICH*
- (pseudo-attach: interpret constituent here)
- *EXP*
- (pseudo-attach: expletive)
- *PPA*
- (pseudo-attach: permanent predictable ambiguity)
But see also section 4.8.7 for list of illegal null
elements that may also appear.
Note that while most null elements contain *'s, they are not the
only asterisks in the texts; there are also a few naturally-occurring
footnote markers. In the “combined” files, null elements are tagged
-NONE-, while footnote markers are generally tagged SYM and preceded by a
backslash.
Indices are used only when they can be used to indicate a relationship
that would otherwise not be unambiguously retrievable from the bracketing.
Indices are used to express such relationships as coreference (as in the
case of controlled PRO or pragmatic coreference for arbitrary PRO), binding
(as in the case of wh-movement), or close association (as in the
case of it-extraposition). These relationships are shown only when
some type of null element is involved, and only when the relationship is
intrasentential. One null element may be associated with another, as in
the case of the null wh-operator. Coreference relations between overt
pronouns and their antecedents are not annotated.
The identity index.
In principle, each bracket within the topmost S is understood to have a
unique index (an “identity index”), which in practice is used only when
that constituent is coreferent with or otherwise closely associated with
some null element in the sentence (or when it's acting in a gapping
“template”). The brackets surrounding null elements are also understood
to be associated with a unique identity index. Identity indices appear
only on the bracket label, as in (NP-1 Kris), (WHNP-2 which dog), (SBAR-24
who offered to take me for a swim), etc.
The actual numbering of the identity indices is arbitrary; i.e. the
constituents are not necessarily numbered sequentially within the sentence,
and a given sentence may contain brackets with the identity indices -1, -2,
-5, and -1978. Note also that in rare cases, a bracket may have an
identity index shown when there is no corresponding null element or
template-gapping constituent.
The reference index.
In most cases, a null element will be suffixed
with an integer (the “reference index”) that matches the identity index
on the bracket label of some other constituent. Note that the reference
index on the null element takes the form of a dash-number on the null
element itself, and not on the bracket label, as in (NP *-1), (NP *T*-2),
and (SBAR *ICH*-24). If the null element in turn refers to or is
associated with a third element, it will bear its own identity index, along
the lines of (NP-1 *T*-2).
(S (NP-SBJ-1 he)
(VP was
(VP accused
(NP-3 *-1)
(PP-CLR of
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP (VP conducting
(NP illegal business))
and
(VP possessing
(NP illegal materials))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP It)
(S *EXP*-2))
(VP 's
(ADJP-PRD (ADJP easier)
(SBAR *ICH*-1))
(S-2 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP get
(ADJP-PRD worse))))
(SBAR-1 than
(FRAG (ADJP-PRD better)))
(PP-LOC in
(NP this game))))
(Note that while this indexing system appears complex, the annotation
procedure is actually quite simple, as it is accomplished with simple mouse
drags that make attention to the gritty details of coindexation unnecessary.)
Indices are also used for the various kinds of pseudo-attach (described in
section 5 [Pseudo-Attach]) and for template gapping (described in section 7 [Coordination]).
4.1.3 Other tags
Null elements may bear additional function tags, as described in
section 2 [Notation]. For instance, the grammatical function of extracted wh-phrases is noted on the wh-trace and not on the wh-element itself.
(SBARQ (WHADVP-439 Where)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP put
(NP the book)
(ADVP-PUT *T*-439)))
?)
4.2 *T* (trace of A′ movement)
Although the use of *T* corresponds loosely to A′ movement, the
match is not precise (e.g. it includes “parasitic gaps”). *T* can also
be seen as marking the interpretation location of certain constituents that
are not in their usual argument position.
The trace *T* always bears a referential index that corresponds to the
identity index of some other constituent in the sentence (moved wh-word, topicalized NP or ADVP, etc.).
4.2.1 Wh-questions
Wh-moved noun phrases are labeled WHNP and put inside SBARQ. They
bear an identity index that matches the reference index on the *T* in the
position of the gap. Constituents other than NP are labeled WHxx (WHADVP,
WHPP, or WHADJP, as appropriate), placed under SBARQ, and coindexed with
the *T* in the position of the gap. The same procedure holds for both
arguments and adjuncts.
- NP arguments
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 what)
(SQ are
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP thinking
(PP-CLR about
(NP *T*-1))))
?)
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 (WHNP Which story)
(PP about
(NP tribbles)))
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP read
(NP *T*-1)))
?)
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 what time)
(SQ is
(NP-SBJ it)
(NP-PRD *T*-1))
?)
- NP adjunct
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 Which day)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP get
(ADVP-DIR there)
(NP-TMP *T*-1)))
?)
- Non-NP arguments
(SBARQ (WHADVP-439 Where)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP put
(NP the book)
(ADVP-PUT *T*-439)))
?)
(SBARQ (WHPP-42 On
(WHNP what))
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP sit
(PP-LOC-CLR *T*-42)))
?)
(SBARQ (WHADJP-54 How cold)
(SQ is
(NP-SBJ it)
(ADJP-PRD *T*-54)
(ADVP-LOC outside))
?)
- Non-NP adjuncts
(SBARQ (WHADVP-42 How)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP fix
(NP the car)
(ADVP-MNR *T*-42)))
?)
(SBARQ (WHADVP-1 Where)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP meet
(NP them)
(ADVP-LOC *T*-1)))
?)
(SBARQ (WHADVP-54 Why)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP jump
(PP-DIR off
(NP the cliff))
(ADVP-PRP *T*-54)))
?)
4.2.2 Relative clauses
Relative clauses are adjoined to the head noun phrase. The relative
pronoun is given the appropriate WH-label, put inside the SBAR level, and
coindexed with a *T* in the position of the gap. (Note that relative
clauses differ from (direct) wh-questions in that they contain an SBAR
rather than an SBARQ.)
wh- and “that” relative clauses.
Relative clauses introduced by that are annotated just as relative
clauses introduced by a wh-word: that is given the
appropriate WH-label, put inside an SBAR level, and coindexed with the *T*
in the position of the gap.
- NP trace
(NP (NP answers)
(SBAR (WHNP-6 that/which)
(S (NP-SBJ-3 we)
(VP 'd
(VP like
(S (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP to
(VP have
(NP *T*-6)))))))))
- ADVP trace
(NP (NP the place)
(SBAR (WHADVP-2 that/where)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP put
(NP the book)
(ADVP-PUT *T*-2)))))
Zero relatives.
Relative clauses introduced by a null complementizer are annotated in a
similar fashion, this time with a null complementizer `0' inside SBAR
labeled with the appropriate wh-category and coindexed with a *T*
in the position of the gap.
- NP trace
(NP (NP answers)
(SBAR (WHNP-3 0)
(S (NP-SBJ-4 we)
(VP 'd
(VP like
(S (NP-SBJ *-4)
(VP to
(VP have
(NP *T*-3)))))))))
- ADVP trace
(NP (NP the place)
(SBAR (WHADVP-2 0)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP put
(NP the book)
(ADVP-PUT *T*-2)))))
Infinitival relatives.
See section 14 [Infinitives] for more information.
- trace as object
(NP (NP a movie)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP see
(NP *T*-1))))))
- trace as subject
(NP (NP bloodhounds)
(SBAR (WHNP-4 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-4)
(VP to
(VP trail
(NP the assassins))))))
- trace as adjunct
(NP (NP time)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP go
(ADVP-TMP *T*-1))))))
4.2.3 Fronted elements
Fronted elements are placed inside the top clause level (e.g. S, SINV,
SQ, SBAR). (Only certain fronted elements are tagged -TPC: (i)
constituents associated with a *T* in the position of the gap and (ii)
left-dislocated constituents (those associated with a resumptive pronoun in
the position of the gap).) (See section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] for more details on the
treatment of fronted elements.)
Arguments.
Fronted argument noun phrases are coindexed with a *T* in the position of
the gap:
(S (NP-TPC-3 This)
(NP-SBJ every man)
(VP contains
(NP *T*-3)
(PP-LOC-CLR within
(NP him))))
(S (NP-TPC-4 Our dull unsystematic youth)
(NP-SBJ we)
(VP let
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-4)
(VP stray
(PP-DIR into
(NP philanthropy))))))
If the fronted argument is an instance of left-dislocation (i.e, associated
with a resumptive pronoun), there is no coindexation between the fronted
argument and the pronoun:
(S (NP-TPC John)
,
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP like
(NP him)
(NP-ADV a lot)))
Other fronted arguments (such as the main VP, a predicate, the locative
complement of put, etc.) are also tagged -TPC, and their identity
index matches the reference index on the *T* inserted in the position of
the gap.
(S (ADVP-PUT-TPC-1 There)
,
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP put
(NP the book)
(ADVP-PUT *T*-1)))
(S (SBAR-ADV (VP-TPC-2 Shout
(PP-CLR at
(NP Eichmann)))
though
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP might
(VP *T*-2))))
the prosecutor could not establish...)
(S (SBAR-ADV (ADJP-PRD-TPC-5 Wrong)
though
(S (NP-SBJ the policy)
(VP may
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD *T*-5)))))
it at least works pretty often.)
(S (S (NP-SBJ-1 we)
(VP hope
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP have
(NP a million dollars)
(NP-TMP someday))))))
and
(S (VP-TPC-6 have
(NP it)
(SBAR-ADV *ICH*-2))
(NP-SBJ we)
(VP may
(VP *T*-6)
,
(SBAR-ADV-2 if
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP get
(ADJP-PRD lucky)))))))
Quotations that precede a verb of saying are treated as fronted arguments:
they leave a *T* and receive the -TPC tag. (See section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] for more
details on the treatment of quotations.)
( (S ``
(S-TPC-1 (NP-SBJ We)
(VP will
(VP win)))
,
''
(NP-SBJ Mary)
(VP said
(S *T*-1))
.))
Note that any constituent tagged -CLR is considered an argument for these
purposes: it leaves a *T* and receives the -TPC tag if fronted.
(S (PP-CLR-TPC-5 With
(NP final exams))
,
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP associate
(NP blood , sweat , and tears)
(PP-CLR *T*-5)))
Adjuncts.
Fronted adjuncts are not associated with a *T* when they have not left the
clause in which they originate, since in this case their relation to the
clause is still clear.
(S (ADVP-MNR Carefully)
,
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP dropped
(NP the feathers)))
(S (NP-TMP Yesterday)
(NP-SBJ-1 a child)
(VP came
(ADVP-DIR out)
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP wonder)))))
(SBARQ (NP-TMP Yesterday)
,
(WHNP-2 what)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ we)
(VP decide
(NP *T*-2)
(PP for
(NP this one))))
?)
However, adjuncts that originate in a lower clause are associated with a
*T* in the position of the gap.
(S (SBAR-PRP-TPC-9 Because
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP 'm
(NP-PRD such a bad boy))))
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP think
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP wo n't
(VP get
(NP a lollipop)
(SBAR-PRP *T*-9)))))))
In cases where it is ambiguous whether the adjunct originates in a lower
clause or in the matrix clause, the adjunct is analyzed as originating from
the matrix clause and NOT bracketed -TPC.
4.2.4 Tough movement
The null element is coindexed to a null wh-phrase.
See section 14 [Infinitives] for more information.
(S (NP-SBJ Cars)
(VP are
(ADJP-PRD tough
(SBAR (WHNP-7 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP pay
(PP-CLR for
(NP *T*-7)))))))))
4.2.5 Parasitic gaps
A coindexed *T* is put in the parasitic gap as well as in the position of
the original gap.
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 Which papers)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ-2 you)
(VP file
(NP *T*-1)
(PP without
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP reading (NP *T*-1))))))
?)
4.3 * (trace of NP movement, controlled PRO, arbitrary PRO)
Because it corresponds to the trace of NP movement, controlled PRO, or
arbitrary PRO, * always appears within NP: (NP *).
(NP *) bears a reference index whenever it is fairly clear what nominal it
is controlled by, corresponding roughly to controlled PRO and the passive
trace. However, indexing also reflects pragmatic coreference in addition
to syntactic relations, within limits described below and in
section 4.8.8.
Unlike *T*, * may appear without a reference index. Unindexed (NP *)
corresponds roughly to arbitrary PRO (and passive traces appearing in
Reduced Relative Clauses—see section 4.8.2).
In cases of strings of coindexed null elements, the null is coindexed to
the most local NP, as with with passives under raising predicates or in the
following example:
(S (NP-SBJ-1 he)
(VP was
(VP accused
(NP-3 *-1)
(PP-CLR of
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP (VP conducting
(NP illegal business))
and
(VP possessing
(NP illegal materials))))))))
When several NPs are adjoined, the indexing should be from the highest
NP:
(S (NP-SBJ-28 (NP Arthur A. Hatch)
,
(NP 59)
,)
(VP was
(VP named
(S (NP-SBJ *-28)
(NP-PRD (NP executive vice president)
(PP of
(NP the company)))))))
Object of verb.
The trace (NP *) is put after the passive verb and
coindexed with the constituent in subject position.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 John)
(VP was
(VP hit
(NP *-1)
(PP by
(NP-LGS a ball)))))
Note that the * may come before or after a PRT (particle). There is no
policy governing this and either order is possible, though it is somewhat
more likely for the PRT to come second:
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Arthur)
(VP was
(VP picked
(NP *-1)
(PRT up)
(PP by
(NP-LGS aliens)))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Arthur)
(VP was
(VP picked
(PRT up)
(NP *-1)
(PP by
(NP-LGS aliens)))))
Object of preposition.
The null may be put after prepositions as
required by the construction.
(S (NP-SBJ-2 (NP kid 's) cars)
(VP are
(ADVP-TMP often)
(VP paid
(PP-CLR for
(NP *-2))
(PP by
(NP-LGS their parents)))))
In reduced relative clause.
See section 4.8.2 for more details on the
treatment of reduced relative clauses. The passive verb (or preposition,
as the case may be) in a reduced relative clause is also followed by a
(NP *). The passive trace in a reduced relative is not coindexed to the
NP preceding it. This reflects an understanding of the relationship
between the NP and reduced relative as post-modification rather than
predication.
(NP (NP an agreement)
(VP signed
(NP *)
(PP by
(NP-LGS everyone))))
(NP (NP a government service)
(VP paid
(PP-CLR for
(NP *))
(PP by
(NP-LGS everyone))))
In some cases (NP *) may function as the subject of a small clause within
the reduced relative:
(NP (NP an elephant)
(VP called
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(NP-PRD Dumbo))))
4.3.3 Subjects of participial clauses and gerunds
The null subject (NP *) of a participial clause or gerund is coindexed
with another constituent in the sentence if it is clear to the annotator
that the two are coreferent. No attempt is made to conform to the standard
Binding Theory of GB or any other such formal approach to coreference. See
section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for more details on the annotation of participial clauses and
gerunds.
- VP complements
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP stopped
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP eating
(NP chocolate)))
(PP-PRP for
(NP Lent))))
(S But
(NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP liked
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP eating
(NP chocolate)))
(ADVP-TMP before)))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 he)
(VP was
(VP accused
(NP-3 *-1)
(PP-CLR of
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP (VP conducting
(NP illegal business))
and
(VP possessing
(NP illegal materials))))))))
- Adverbials
(S (NP-SBJ-1 She)
(VP left
,
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ-2 *-1)
(VP offended
(NP *-2)
(PP by (NP-LGS their remarks))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Time)
(VP eluded
(NP Paramount)
(PP-MNR by
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP acquiring
(NP Warner Communications Inc))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP fell
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *-1)
(ADJP-PRD asleep))
(PP-LOC on
(NP the lobby floor))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Borough Presidents)
,
(SBAR-ADV while
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP retaining
(NP (NP membership)
(PP-LOC in
(NP (NP the Board)
(PP of
(NP Estimate))))))))
,
(VP lose
(NP their housekeeping functions)))
- Subjects
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Eating
(NP chocolate)))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD good
(PP for
(NP you)))))
- Without coindexation.
In the case where there is no good candidate for coreference within the
sentence, (NP *) remains without an index.
(S (NP-SBJ A Texas legislator)
(VP proposes
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP color-coding
(NP (NP (NP drivers ')
licenses)
(PP of
(NP some drug offenders)))))))
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Taking
(NP Iwo Jima)))
(VP was
(NP-PRD no easy feat)))
Note also that the null subject of a gerund that is coordinated with one or
more NPs is usually not coindexed.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP like
(NP (NP medals)
,
(NP cheering crowds)
,
and
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP swimming
(NP the backstroke))))))
4.3.4 Subjects of infinitival clauses
With coindexation
- VP complement clauses.
Note that from the perspective of the
annotator, it is not necessary to distinguish between Raising and Control
structures, etc. In each case, the annotator simply coindexes the empty
subject of the infinitival with whatever lexical NP it is associated with.
- “Raising” constructions.
(S (NP-SBJ-3 Everyone)
(VP seems
(S (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP to
(VP dislike
(NP Drew Barrymore))))))
- “Object control” constructions.
(S (NP-SBJ Ford)
(VP persuaded
(NP-1 Zaphod)
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP run
(PP-CLR for
(NP president)))))))
- “Subject control” constructions.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Zaphod)
(VP promised
(NP Ford)
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP run
(PP-CLR for
(NP president)))))))
- Semi-auxiliaries.
Semi-auxiliaries occur in constructions with infinitival to,
(e.g, supposed to, ought to, have to). They are annotated with
full infinitival structure and have a (NP-SBJ *) subject, coindexed as
appropriate.
(S (PP Of (NP course))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 regulators)
(VP would
(VP have
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP approve
(NP (NP Columbia 's)
reorganization)))))))
about to is also treated as a
semi-auxiliary in official policy, though some variation exists.
The following bracketings are likely.
- ADJP complement clauses.
Null element is coindexed with the matrix subject, where appropriate.
-
“Raising” constructions.
(S (NP-SBJ-4 This climb)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD likely
(S (NP-SBJ *-4)
(VP to
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD difficult)))))))
- “Control” constructions.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Zaphod)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD ready
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP eat
(NP the steak)))))))
- Adverbials.
Here are a few common adverbials infinitives. This is not an exhaustive list.
- purpose clause
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The public)
(VP did n't
(VP come
(PP-DIR to
(NP the market))
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP play
(NP a game)))))))
- semi-complement clause
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Skilled ringers)
(VP use
(NP their wrists)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP advance or retard
(NP the next swing))))))
- resultative clause
(S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP London 's)
Financial Times 100-share index)
(VP shed
(NP 40.4 points)
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP finish
(PP-CLR at
(NP 2149.3)))))))
Without coindexation.
The following types of (NP *) subject are not
coindexed: subject of infinitive inside NP, imperative subject, subject in
“tough-movement” construction. Aside from these rules, there are some
cases in which coindexation is much less likely than normal, described in
section 4.8.8.
- Infinitives inside NPs.
These include complement clauses within NP
and the subjects of infinitival relative clauses,
(NP (NP John 's)
decision
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP leave))))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP made
(NP a decision
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP leave))))))
(NP (NP a manual)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP write
(NP *T*-1))))))
Note, however, that the *T* subject of an infinitival relative is coindexed
as appropriate.
(NP (NP bloodhounds)
(SBAR (WHNP-4 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-4)
(VP to
(VP trail
(NP the assassins))))))
- Imperative subjects.
(S (NP-VOC Kris)
,
(NP-SBJ *)
(VP go
(ADVP-DIR home))
!)
- Subjects in “tough”-movement constructions.
(S (PP for (NP Zaphod))
,
(NP-SBJ that steak)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD ready
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP eat
(NP *T*-1))))))))
4.3.5 Subjects of as- and than-clauses
A (NP *) is used as a “placeholder” subject in clauses introduced by than or as that lack an overt subject. This type of structure
may also be annotated using *?* or FRAG, though both are rare. See then
end of section 4.6.2
(page ??) for more on these
possibilities.
(S But
(NP-SBJ there)
(VP may
(VP be
(NP-PRD (NP less)
(ADVP-LOC there)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP meets
(NP the eye))))))))
(NP (NP as little)
(SBAR as
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD consistent ...)))))
(S (NP-SBJ Primerica)
,
(SBAR-ADV as
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP expected)))
,
(ADVP also)
(VP acquired ...))
(NP (NP Items)
(VP listed
(NP-1 *)
(PP-CLR as
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP being
(PP-PRD in
(NP short supply)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 She)
(VP was
(VP quoted
(NP-2 *-1)
(PP-CLR as
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP saying ...))))))
4.4 0 (null complementizer)
0 is used inside SBAR only if there is no overt wh-element
or that: (SBAR 0) or (SBAR (WHxx 0)).
4.4.1 Subordinator for tensed complement clauses
The null complementizer introduces most tensed complement clauses.
-
With complement of ADJP.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP 'm
(ADJP-PRD sure
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP 'll
(VP be
(ADVP-LOC-PRD here)
(NP-TMP any minute))))))))
- With complement of VP.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP believe
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP are
(ADJP-PRD *?*))))))
- With complement of NP.
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP wrote
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP had
(VP given (PRT up)
(NP hope
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP would
(ADVP-TMP ever)
(VP agree
(PP-CLR on
(NP anything)))))))))))))
(S (PP in
(NP the event
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ Congress)
(VP does
(VP provide
(NP (NP this increase)
(PP in (NP federal funds)))))))))
,
(NP-SBJ the State Board)
(VP should ...))
4.4.2 Zero relative clauses
-
The null complementizer is labeled (WHNP 0) if it corresponds to
who, which, that, etc.
(NP (NP the bird)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP saw
(NP *T*-1)))))
- The null complementizer is labeled (WHADVP 0) if it corresponds to
where, why, when, how, etc.
(NP (NP the place)
(SBAR (WHADVP-2 0)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP put
(NP the book)
(ADVP-PUT *T*-2)))))
(NP (NP the reason)
(SBAR (WHADVP-3 0)
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP came
(ADVP-PRP *T*-3)))))
4.4.3 Infinitival relative clauses
See section 14 [Infinitives] for more details on Infinitives.
- (WHNP 0) is used for NP objects and subjects.
(NP (NP a movie)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP see
(NP *T*-1))))))
- (WHADVP 0) is used in the case where the missing element can be
paraphrased as in which, at which, for which, etc.
(S (NP-SBJ That)
(VP 's
(NP-PRD (NP a good way)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP keep
(ADJP-PRD warm)
(ADVP-MNR *T*-1))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP 's
(NP-PRD (NP no reason)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP do
(NP it)
(NP-MNR that way)
(ADVP-PRP *T*-1))))))))
- When the infinitival is introduced by for, the appropriate
form of (WHxx 0) is inserted before the for in SBAR:
(NP (NP a movie)
(SBAR (WHNP-3 0)
for
(S (NP-SBJ us)
(VP to
(VP see
(NP *T*-3))))))
(NP (NP a good way)
(SBAR (WHADVP-4 0)
for
(S (NP-SBJ them)
(VP to
(VP do
(NP it)
(ADVP-MNR *T*-4))))))
4.5 *U* (unit)
This element marks the interpreted position of a unit symbol, such as $,
# (British pounds), FFr (French francs), C$, US$, HK$, A$, M$, S$,
and NZ$. It may also appear after % or even cents, when
convenient. See section 11 [Modification of NP] for more details on the use of *U*.
(NP C$ 5 *U*)
(NP (QP between $ 5 and $ 15) *U*)
After %, *U* is used only as necessary.
(NP (QP between 12 % to 13 %)
*U*)
After cents, *U* has been used occasionally for certain complex
constructions, though such use is not officially sanctioned.
(NP (NP earnings)
(PP of
(NP (NP (QP between 62 cents and 64 cents)
*U*)
(NP-ADV a share))))
In general, *U* is placed where the word corresponding to the symbol would
appear in the string if the text were read aloud. One notable exception is
in certain hyphenated compound adjectives, such as a $5-a-share
increase (spoken: “A five dollar a share increase”). Here, the
bracketing will usually not reflect the spoken order, with *U* placed as
the last element in the ADJP:
(NP a (ADJP $ 5-a-share *U*)
increase)
Sometimes, this type may lack the *U* entirely.
4.6 *?* (placeholder for ellipsed material)
*?* is now available in the following great-tasting flavors: (VP *?*),
(ADJP-PRD *?*), (PP-PRD *), (NP *?*), (S *?*), (SBAR *?*). These act as
placeholders for a missing predicate or piece thereof, especially in
comparative constructions and other environments where predicate deletion
occurs. Although the missing material represented by *?* is often
identical to another constituent in the same sentence, the two are never
coindexed. Postmodifiers of the verb (including traces) may be attached
under (VP *?*), but not to any other null element, including the other *?*
null elements and (VP *T*).
Note that policy for *?* was never finalized, so its use varies to some
extent. In general, *?* is used by the annotators as a last resort (short
of the FRAG analysis) for the annotation of clauses with “missing”
material. Nonetheless, there are certain constructions that are
particularly likely to contain *?*:
4.6.1 Comparative deletion
(See section 22 [Comparatives] for more information.)
Complement of be.
Missing complements of be
are labeled as appropriate and receive the -PRD tag.
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD (ADJP sillier)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP am
(ADJP-PRD *?*)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ Laos)
(VP is
(PP-PRD of
(NP (NP (ADVP no more)
(ADJP purely military)
value)
(SBAR *ICH*-2)))
(PP to
(NP (NP Moscow)
(NP itself)))
(SBAR-2 than
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP is
(PP-PRD *?*)
(PP to
(NP Washington)))))))
Direct object.
(S (NP-SBJ the Controller)
(VP will
(VP have
(NP (NP the opportunity)
(PP for
(NP (NP greater usefulness)
(PP to
(NP good government))
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP has
(NP *?*)
(ADVP-TMP now))))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-2 the Fed)
(VP was
(VP prepared
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP provide
(NP (NP (ADJP as much) credit)
(SBAR as
(S (NP-SBJ the markets)
(VP needed
(NP *?*)))))))))))
Verb phrase.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The submission)
(PP of (NP detailed plans)))
(VP would
(VP place
(NP the issues)
(PP-LOC-CLR before (NP the court))
(ADVP-MNR (ADVP more readily)
(SBAR than
(SINV would
(NP-SBJ (NP discussion)
(PP of
(NP divestiture
or
disenfranchisement))
(PP in (NP the abstract)))
(VP *?*)))))))
Clausal complement.
(S (PP As
(NP Mayor))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 Mr. Levitt)
(VP might
(VP turn
(PRT out)
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD (ADJP more independent)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ (NP some)
(PP of
(NP his leading
supporters)))
(VP would
(VP like
(S *?*))))))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ the steel strike)
(VP lasted
(ADVP-TMP (ADVP much longer)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP anticipated
(SBAR 0
(S *?*))))))))
VP pro-form do.
In constructions with a VP pro-form, a missing VP may be postulated and
shown as the complement of do.
(S (NP-SBJ Bill)
(VP eats
(NP (NP more hotdogs)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ Mary)
(VP does
(VP *?*)))))))
4.6.2 Deletion in non-comparatives
VP after missing auxiliary in second conjunct.
(S (S (NP-SBJ She)
(ADVP-TMP rarely)
(VP sings))
,
so
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP do n't
(VP think
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ she)
(VP will
(VP *?*
(NP-TMP tonight)))))))))
(S (S (NP-SBJ Robin)
(VP likes
(NP ice cream)))
, and
(S (NP-SBJ Kim)
(VP does
(VP *?*
,
(ADVP too)))))
VP after missing auxiliary in subordinate clauses.
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Call
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(ADJP-PRD anecdotal))
(SBAR-ADV if
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP will
(VP *?*))))))
(S (SBAR-ADV As
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP did
(VP *?*
(SBAR-TMP (WHADVP-1 when)
(S (NP-SBJ the Philippines)
(VP was
(NP-PRD a colony)
(ADVP-TMP *T*-1))))))))
,
(NP-SBJ teachers)
(PP for
(NP the most part))
(VP teach
(PP-MNR in
(NP English))))
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP must
(VP buy
(NP shares)
(PP-CLR from
(NP sellers))
(SBAR-TMP (WHADVP-1 when)
(S (NP-SBJ-2 (NP no one)
(ADJP else))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD willing
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP *?*))))))))))
VP missing in as do-type constructions
(S (NP-SBJ (NP Warner)
and
(NP Mr. Azoff))
(VP declined
(NP comment)
,
(SBAR-ADV as
(SINV did
(NP-SBJ MCA)
(VP *?*)))))
Non-inverted version (as MCA did) might also have (VP *?*).
(SBAR-ADV as
(S (NP-SBJ MCA)
(VP did
(VP *?*))))
But note that when the so predicate pro-form is present, *?* is not
used, and the so is treated as an adverbial predicate standing in
for the understood verbal predicate:
(S (NP-SBJ They)
(ADVP also)
(VP did
(ADVP-PRD so)))
(S (S (NP The winners)
(VP had
(NP fun)))
,
and
(SINV (ADVP-PRD-TPC-1 so)
(VP did
(ADVP-PRD *T*-1))
(NP-SBJ the losers)))
Note, however, that this policy was late in appearance and not always well
understood, so the -PRD label may be missing, or replaced by -CLR or -MNR.
Also, in inverted sentences, the (ADVP so) may lack the -TPC and
accompanying *T*.
With relation to previous sentence.
The following two sentences appear in succession (in wsj_2106). The second
conjunct of the first sentence contains *?*, indicating ellipsis with
respect to material contained in the first conjunct. The second sentence
also contains *?*, again indicating ellipsis with respect to the same
material. As a rule, we do not indicate intersentential relationships, but
here the second instance of *?* is present by virtue of this
intersentential relationship, though such relationship is not explicitly
recoverable from the annotation.
( (S Either
(S (NP-SBJ one)
(VP likes
(NP it)))
or
(S (NP-SBJ one)
(VP does n't
(VP *?*)))
.))
( (S (NP-SBJ The typical Glass audience)
(ADVP certainly)
(VP does
(VP *?*))
.))
In subject position.
In very rare (about 5) cases, *?* may also appear
in subject position, although * is much more likely to be found there.
(S (NP-SBJ We)
(VP are
(VP working
(ADVP (ADVP significantly longer and harder)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ *?*)
(VP has
(VP been
(NP-PRD the case)
(PP-TMP in
(NP the past))))))))))
Other possibilities include FRAG:
(S (NP-SBJ-1 we)
(VP will
(VP take
(NP ongoing cost-reduction actions)
(SBAR-ADV as
(FRAG (ADJP necessary))))))
and (most common by far) simply calling the as or than PP:
(NP-PRD (NP another day)
(PP of
(NP (NP ectoplasmic business)
(PP as
(ADJP usual)))))
(S (NP-SBJ The decline)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD (ADJP even steeper)
(PP than
(PP-TMP in
(NP September))))))
4.6.3 Undefined gaps
*?* is occasionally used to fill a (noun-phrase) gap for which there is no
well-established policy:
(S (NP-SBJ The plant)
(VP will
(VP cost
(NP (QP about 50 million) Canadian dollars)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP build
(NP *?*)))))))
(NP (NP a return)
(ADJP worth
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP getting
(ADJP-PRD excited
(PP about
(NP *?*)))))))
4.7 *NOT* (anti-placeholder in template gapping)
*NOT* is used in the template gapping procedure, along with “=” and a
system of coindexation. See section 7 [Coordination] for more details on the
template gapping approach.
Unlike other null elements, correspondence to a *NOT* is shown by an “=”
index on the bracket label, rather than by a “–” index on the
null element itself.
*NOT* is used very rarely (about 20 times in the entire WSJ corpus) when
the “template” and “copy” are not entirely parallel. In principle, it can
serve in two roles:
4.7.1 In the “copy”
In the copy, *NOT* can be used to indicate that the corresponding
constituent in the template is not interpreted in the “copy”.
(S (NP-SBJ the auditor)
(VP (VP (ADVP-TMP-2 first)
described
(NP-3 the old plan)
(PP-CLR-4 as
(ADJP ill conceived))
(PRN -LRB-
(SBAR-ADV-5 as
(S (NP-SBJ everyone)
(ADVP-TMP already)
(VP agreed)))
-RRB-))
but
(VP (ADVP-TMP=2 then)
(NP=3 (NP the new plan)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP 'd
(VP worked
(ADVP-MNR so hard)
(PP-CLR on
(NP *T*-1)))))))
(PP-CLR=4 as
(UCP (PP out (PP to (NP lunch)))
and
(ADJP totally half-baked)))
(ADVP=5 *NOT*))))
Note that it is very difficult to construct a grammatical example, so
(unsurprisingly) there are no actual examples of this construction in
the WSJ corpus.
4.7.2 In the “template”
In the template, *NOT* appears in the position where the
corresponding constituent in the copy is interpreted, when there is no
matching constituent already in the template.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The 189 Democrats)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP supported
(NP the override)
(NP-TMP yesterday)))))
(VP compare
(PP-CLR with
(NP (NP (NP-3 175)
(SBAR (WHNP-2 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-2)
(ADVP initially)
(VP backed
(NP the rape-and-incest exemption)
(ADVP-TMP-4 (NP two weeks)
ago)
(PP-5 *NOT*)))))
and
(NP (NP=3 136)
(NP-TMP=4 last year)
(PP=5 on
(NP a similar vote)))))))
More often than not, however, it is assumed that an unindexed constituent
at top level of the “copy” is interpreted at highest possible level –
usually VP-level of the template. (Note that this rule doesn't work in the
above example, so it actually needs the *NOT*.)
So the following examples:
(S (NP The teacher)
(VP (VP gave
(NP-1 Ignatius)
(NP-2 only a B)
(SBAR-3 *NOT*))
,
but
(VP (NP=1 Bertha)
(NP=2 an A)
(SBAR-PRP=3 because
(S (NP-SBJ she)
(VP wrote
(ADVP-MNR so well)))))))
(VP (VP increasing
(PP-DIR-2 to
(NP 2.5 %))
(PP-TMP-3 in
(NP February 1991))
(ADVP-TMP-4 *NOT*))
,
and
(VP (PP-DIR=2 to
(NP 3 %))
(PP-TMP=3 at
(NP six-month intervals))
(ADVP-TMP=4 thereafter)))
might more likely be bracketed:
(S (NP The teacher)
(VP (VP gave
(NP-1 Ignatius)
(NP-2 only a B))
,
but
(VP (NP=1 Bertha)
(NP=2 an A)
(SBAR-PRP because
(S (NP-SBJ she)
(VP wrote
(ADVP-MNR so well)))))))
(VP (VP increasing
(PP-DIR-2 to
(NP 2.5 %))
(PP-TMP-3 in
(NP February 1991)))
,
and
(VP (PP-DIR=2 to
(NP 3 %))
(PP-TMP=3 at
(NP six-month intervals))
(ADVP-TMP thereafter)))
4.7.3 Alternatives to *NOT*
Certain constructions that are sometimes analyzed using *NOT* are more
likely to be analyzed more simply, usually using PRN or FRAG or just PP.
- complicated *NOT* analysis
(S (S (NP-SBJ This gap)
(ADVP-TMP-2 eventually)
(VP closes
(ADVP-MNR-1 *NOT*)))
,
but
(S (ADVP-TMP=2 *NOT*)
(ADVP-MNR=1 slowly)))
- PP analysis
(S (NP-SBJ This gap)
(ADVP-TMP eventually)
(VP closes
,
(PP but
(ADVP-MNR slowly))))
- PRN analysis
(S (NP-SBJ This gap)
(ADVP-TMP eventually)
(VP closes
(PRN ,
but
(ADVP-MNR slowly))))
- FRAG analysis
(S (S (NP-SBJ This gap)
(ADVP-TMP eventually)
(VP closes))
,
but
(FRAG (ADVP-MNR slowly)))
- conjunction? what conjunction?
(S (NP-SBJ This gap)
(ADVP-TMP eventually)
(VP closes
,
but
(ADVP-MNR slowly)))
4.8 Miscellaneous
4.8.1 Subject-aux inversion with subject extractions
When a question is of the subject, the placement of the null *T* subject
determines whether the resulting clause appears to exhibit subject-aux
inversion.
In most cases, the (NP-SBJ *T*) is inserted at the beginning of the SQ,
before the inflected verb or auxiliary:
(SBARQ (WHNP-4 Who)
(SQ (NP-SBJ *T*-4)
(VP came
(PP-DIR to
(NP the party))))
?)
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 Who)
(SQ (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP will
(VP come
(PP-DIR to
(NP the party))))))
(SBARQ (WHNP-4 Who)
(SQ (NP-SBJ *T*-4)
(ADVP-TMP always)
(VP comes
(PP-DIR to
(NP parties))))
?)
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 Who)
(SQ (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP will
(ADVP-TMP never)
(VP come
(PP-DIR to
(NP the party))))))
Note, however, that there is some variation (since annotators are
accustomed to seeing subject-aux inversion in many questions), and the
subject trace is occasionally inserted directly after an initial
auxiliary:
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 Who)
(SQ will
(NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP come
(PP-DIR to
(NP the party)))))
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 Who)
(SQ will
(NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(ADVP-TMP never)
(VP come
(PP-DIR to
(NP the party)))))
4.8.2 Reduced relatives
Reduced relative clauses are bracketed as follows,
with no structure above the VP level:
(NP (NP an elephant)
(VP called
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(NP-PRD Dumbo))))
It may be that the underlying structure of the reduced relative is as
follows:
(NP (NP an elephant)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ-2 *T*-1)
(VP BE
(VP called
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(NP-PRD Dumbo)))))))
But we do not attempt to reflect this particular understanding of the
reduced relative in the annotation. Nonetheless, the bracketing as it is
can automatically be transformed into such a structure. Note also that
choosing the former style of annotation over the latter necessarily affects
coindexation: The passive (NP *) does not bear an index in the former, as
the null subject with which it is associated is not present in the
annotation.
4.8.3 Attachment to null elements
Barring certain exceptions, a null element never has another constituent
attached to it. Thus, the SBAR in the first example below and the PP in
the second example are not attached to the trace, but rather to its overt
associate NP elsewhere in the sentence.
(SBARQ (WHNP-2 (WHNP Who)
(SBAR *ICH*-3))
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP meet
(NP *T*-2)
(SBAR-3 (WHNP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP wore
(NP overalls)))))))
(SINV (ADVP-LOC-PRD-TPC-5 Here)
(VP are
(ADVP-LOC-PRD *T*-5))
(NP-SBJ (NP the pictures)
(SBAR (WHNP-3 0)
(S (NP-SBJ-1 you)
(VP wanted
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP see
(NP *T*-3)))))))
(PP of
(NP (NP that cute dog)
(SBAR (WHNP-2 0)
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP met
(NP *T*-2)
(NP-TMP the other day))))))))
Note that (VP *?*) (but not (VP *T*-1)) is an exception to this rule.
(S (S (NP-SBJ She)
(ADVP-TMP rarely)
(VP sings))
,
so
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP do n't
(VP think
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ she)
(VP will
(VP *?*
(NP-TMP tonight)))))))))
4.8.4 Attachment of null elements
*PPA* (permanent predictable ambiguity).
*PPA*-attach is used to
indicate ambiguity of attachment of a trace, if the sentence is truly
ambiguous (here “why was the decision made” vs. “why do you think it was
made”):
(SBARQ (WHADVP-1 Why)
(SQ do
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP think
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP made
(NP that decision)
(ADVP-PRP *PPA*-2))))
(ADVP-PRP-2 *T*-1))))
Note that such ambiguity is unlikely context, so such examples are rare or
nonexistent in the actual corpus.
Shared traces.
On the other hand, shared traces are handled
quite differently. When a trace is interpreted as part of two separate
conjuncts, there will be one trace at conjuction level if the element in
question is a VP adjunct:
(NP (NP a business system)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 where)
(S (NP-SBJ shareholders)
(VP (VP have
(NP few rights))
and
(VP expect
(NP only modest dividends))
(ADVP-LOC *T*-1)))))
...but two separate traces otherwise (pseudo-attach is not used):
(S (NP-SBJ-2 (NP (QP No fewer than 24)
country funds))
(VP have
(VP been
(VP (VP launched
(NP *-2))
or
(VP registered
(NP *-2)
(PP-CLR with
(NP regulators)))
(NP-TMP this year)))))
(S (PP-TPC-1 Of (NP the 13 entrants))
,
(S (NP-SBJ (NP 5)
(PP *T*-1))
(VP finished))
and
(S (NP-SBJ (NP 8)
(PP *T*-1))
(VP crashed)))
4.8.5 Interpreting the WH label
WHNP, WHADJP, etc. are labels that mark a wh-phrase in SBAR that
has an associated trace *T* in the position where the wh-phrase is
interpreted.
Wh-phrases usually contain a wh-word, such as who,
whose, which, when, where, how, why, whom, whenever, whatever, etc. in
questions and relative clauses. The WHx label is also used for that and 0 (zero) in relative clauses.
The label applies only to wh-words that appear in SBAR. It is not
used for in situ wh-phrases:
(S (NP-SBJ You)
(VP said
(NP what))
?)
(S (NP-SBJ The butcher)
(VP gave
(NP the bone)
(PP-DTV to
(NP which dog)))
?)
However, note that in sentence fragments where the relative position of the
wh-word may not be clear, the wh-word in question may be
labeled as such if the annotator has the sense that the wh word is not in situ.
(FRAG (WHADVP Why)
not
?)
( (S (NP-SBJ You)
(VP said
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP gave
(NP you)
(NP something)))))
.))
( (FRAG (WHNP what)
?))
In complex wh-phrases, wh-ness percolates up but not down.
Thus, in the following, from is labeled WH but of and syntax are not.
(SBARQ (WHPP-1 From
(WHNP (WHNP whose theory)
(PP of
(NP syntax))))
(SQ do
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP draw
(NP this conclusion)
(PP-CLR *T*-1)))
?)
4.8.6 Comparative relatives
Certain comparatives may have been analyzed as relative clauses, as in (b),
although the *?* analysis is more common, as in (a):
a. (S (NP-SBJ-2 the Fed)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD prepared
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP provide
(NP (NP (ADJP as much) credit)
(SBAR as
(S (NP-SBJ the markets)
(VP needed
(NP *?*)))))))))))
b. (S (NP-SBJ-2 the Fed)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD prepared
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP provide
(NP (NP (ADJP as much) credit)
(SBAR (WHNP-3 0)
as
(S (NP-SBJ the markets)
(VP needed
(NP *T*-3)))))))))))
4.8.7 Illegal null elements
Following is a list of old and/or improperly formed null elements. They
should be removed or updated as described, but they may occasionally slip
into published files, despite checks which are designed to prevent this.
-
.2 ex plus .1 ex minus .1 ex
*T*
- should always have a reference index. Any *T* that lacks a
reference index should be indexed as appropriate, or removed.
- *pseudo-attach*
- used to be an all-purpose pseudo-attach marker. This
should be converted to *ICH*, *RNR*, *EXP*, or *PPA*, as appropriate, or
removed if now unnecessary. Note that the reference index for this null
element appeared on the bracket label, making it appear to be an identity
index.
- T
- formerly stood for noun phrase wh-traces. It should be
changed to *T* and indexed as appropriate. Note, however, that it is
possible for `T' to appear as part of real text (for example, as a symbol
for `Temperature' in scientific writing).
- +
- is inserted by the Fidditch parser as a passive trace.
These are fixed in preprocessing, but those that slip through should be
removed or replaced with `*'.
- OF
- is inserted by the Fidditch parser after predeterminers
such as all. It should be removed, along with its accompanying PP,
and the noun phrases should be flattened into a single NP:
(NP (NP all)
(PP OF
(NP the dogs)))
should be changed to:
(NP all the dogs)
Note also that it is possible for a null element to still have a reference
index after the brackets with the corresponding identity index have been
removed. However, such errors are relatively rare (about 0.1% of all
indexed null elements).
4.8.8 Limits of coindexation
The * null element generally receives a reference index whenever
there is an appropriate referent elsewhere in the same sentence. However,
there are cases in which annotators tend to not coindex, even when they can
find a plausible referent. Some of these criteria overlap with each other
and with rules described above.
Non-arguments.
Annotators usually avoid indexing from non-arguments.
(S (PP for
(NP us))
,
(S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP eating
(NP chocolate)))
(VP is
(NP-PRD (NP a way)
(PP of
(NP life)))))
(S (PP For
(NP Willie))
,
(NP-SBJ (NP it)
(S *EXP*-1))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD difficult)
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP resist
(NP chocolate))))))
(S (PP for (NP Zaphod))
,
(NP-SBJ that steak)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD ready
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP eat
(NP *T*-1))))))))
Gerund PP objects.
Null subjects of gerund complements of PP modifiers of NPs are coindexed
only if there is a particularly strong coindexed interpretation or the PP
appears to be part of some “fixed phrase”.
(S (NP-SBJ the company)
(VP has
(NP (NP no intention)
(PP of
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP tapping
(NP its short-term bank lines)))))
(PP-TMP for
(NP (NP a good part)
(PP of
(NP 1990))))))
(S (PP In
(NP (NP addition)
(PP to
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP having
(NP high price-earnings ratios))))))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 most)
(VP pay
(NP puny dividends)))
Possessive NPs.
NP brackets that only mark a possessive phrase within an NP should NOT
serve as a referent for a * null element:
(S (NP-SBJ (NP the Fed 's)
goal)
(VP is
(S-PRD (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP reduce
(NP inflation))))))
(NP (NP (NP Mr. Bush 's)
claim
(SBAR that...))
and
(NP (NP his insistence)
(PP on
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP combining...)))))
However, a possessive NP that is acting as a subject may serve such a role:
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Pinkerton 's)
(VP had
(VP locked
(NP itself)
(PP-CLR into
(NP low-price contracts))
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP win
(NP new business)))))))
Indexing in modified NPs.
When an NP is adjoined with modifiers, the head NP should not serve as a
referent for a * null element (although it may be used for template
gapping). The adjunction level should also not serve as a reference for
*'s found within the NP's modifiers.
In the following example, the * subject of spotting should not be
indexed either to New York money manager Mario Gabelli or an
expert, nor should it be indexed to the whole NP-SBJ.
(NP-SBJ (NP New York money manager Mario Gabelli)
,
(NP (NP an expert)
(PP at
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP spotting
(NP takeover candidates)))))
,)
In the following example, the * subject of buy should not be indexed,
although it is clear that the Soviet companies are doing the buying.
(NP-SBJ-2 (NP Soviet companies)
(VP needing
(NP Western currencies)
(S-PRP-CLR (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP buy
(NP equipment and supplies)
(ADVP-LOC abroad))))))
The following is an error, since the coindexation should have been from the
whole subject noun phrase:
(S (NP-SBJ (NP-1 Ford)
,
(SBAR (WHNP-64 which)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-64)
(ADVP-TMP already)
(VP has
(NP an unwelcome (ADJP 13.2 %) holding))))
,)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD prepared
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP bid
(PP-PRP for
(NP the entire company))))))))
5 Pseudo-Attach
5.1 Types of pseudo-attach
The pseudo-attach function is used for (1)
structural ambiguity, (2) attachment in more than one place
simultaneously, as with shared constituents, (3) indicating that
something should be attached elsewhere, as with discontinuous dependencies,
and (4) extraposed clauses. Each type of pseudo-attach is associated with
a different type of null element (these are discussed in more detail in
following sections; see also section 4 [Null Elements] for more information on indexing
conventions):
- Structural ambiguity *PPA* (“Permanent Predictable Ambiguity”)
Example: I saw the man with the telescope, where *PPA*-attach
indicates an either/or interpretation at the attachment sites.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP saw
(NP (NP the man)
(PP *PPA*-1))
(PP-MNR-1 with
(NP the telescope))))
- Shared constituents *RNR* (“Right Node Raising”)
Example: His dreams had revolved around her so much and for so long
that..., where *RNR*-attach indicates a simultaneous interpretation at
the attachment sites.
(S (NP-SBJ His dreams)
(VP had
(VP revolved
(PP-CLR around
(NP her))
(UCP-ADV (ADVP (ADVP so much)
(SBAR *RNR*-1))
and
(PP-TMP for
(NP (NP so long)
(SBAR *RNR*-1)))
(SBAR-1 that...)))))
- Discontinuous dependency *ICH* (“Interpret Constituent Here”)
Example: I saw a bear yesterday who was wearing really cool shoes,
where *ICH*-attach indicates that the relative clause is interpreted at the
pseudo-attach site only.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP saw
(NP (NP a bear)
(SBAR *ICH*-2))
(NP-TMP yesterday)
(SBAR-2 (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP was
(VP wearing
(NP (ADJP really cool) shoes)))))))
- it-extraposition *EXP* (“EXPletive”)
Example: My teacher said it was OK for me to use the notes on the
test, where *EXP*-attach indicates that the infinitive clause is the
logical subject of the sentence.
(S (NP-SBJ My teacher)
(VP said
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ (NP it)
(SBAR *EXP*-1))
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD OK)
(SBAR-1 for
(S (NP-SBJ me)
(VP to
(VP use
(NP the notes)
(PP-LOC on
(NP the test)))))))))))
5.2 *PPA* (“Permanent Predictable Ambiguity”)
This form of pseudo-attach is reserved for those cases in which one
cannot tell even from context where a constituent should be attached. The
default is to attach the constituent at the more likely site (or if
that is impossible to determine, at the higher site) and then to
pseudo-attach it at all other plausible sites.
Here, on the printer could modify either the forms, the
class or the forms, or it could go directly under VP as a PP adverbial.
The PP in question is adjoined to the NP the forms and *PPA*-attached
to the other interpretation sites.
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Use
(NP this option)
(SBAR-TMP (WHADVP-2 when)
(S (NP-SBJ the operator)
(VP changes
(NP (NP (NP the class)
or
(NP (NP the forms)
(PP-LOC-1 on
(NP the printer))))
(PP-LOC *PPA*-1))
(PP-LOC *PPA*-1)
(ADVP-TMP *T*-2))))))
Here, for the maintenance of COBOL may modify procedures or
it may function as a purpose clause attached under VP:
(S (NP-SBJ-2 (NP Procedures)
(PP *PPA*-1))
(VP have
(VP been
(VP established
(NP *-2)
(PP-PRP-1 for
(NP (NP the maintenance)
(PP of
(NP COBOL))))))))
But since finding potential ambiguities is difficult and time-consuming,
especially when reading in context, annotators are much more likely to
attach at the most likely interpretation site than to use *PPA*-attach.
Thus, use of *PPA* is very rare (about 40 occurrences in the WSJ corpus).
(The alert reader will have noticed that *PPA* is as closely related to
“Permanent Predictable Ambiguity” as it is to “Philadelphia Parking
Authority”).
5.2.1 Benign ambiguity
This use of *PPA* does not include cases of “benign ambiguity”, and we
do not in general show all plausible attachment points. In the case where
a difference in attachment site makes no difference to the interpretation,
the default is to attach the constituent at the highest of the levels
where it can be interpreted. Here, in each record format could
modify the NP different positions as an adjoined postmodifier or it
could modify the verb begin as an adverbial. The second of these
interpretations is chosen since it represents the higher attachment site:
(S (NP-SBJ The key fields)
(VP can
(VP begin
(PP-LOC-CLR at
(NP different positions))
(PP-LOC in
(NP each record format)))))
5.2.2 Complex structural ambiguity
The *PPA* function can be used to indicate only simple attachment
differences. The following are examples of ambiguity that involve more
complex structural and categorical ambiguities which cannot be captured by
*PPA*-attach. In this case, annotation proceeds according to the most
likely interpretation.
- I'll come by Tuesday
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP 'll
(VP come
(PRT by)
(NP-TMP Tuesday))))
vs.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP 'll
(VP come
(PP-TMP by
(NP Tuesday)))))
- I can't be happy long without drinking water
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP ca n't
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD happy)
(ADVP-TMP long)
(PP without
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP drinking
(NP water)))))))
vs.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP ca n't
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD happy)
(ADVP-TMP long)
(PP without
(NP drinking water)))))
5.2.3 Further examples of *PPA*
(S (PP-LOC In
(NP Southern Illinois))
,
(NP-SBJ-2 (NP the new federal program)
(PP of
(NP (NP help)
(PP to
(NP (ADJP economically depressed)
areas)))))
(VP ought
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP provide
(NP (NP some stimulus)
(PP *PPA*-1))
(PP-CLR-1 to
(NP growth)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Imagine
(NP (NP (NP the searching)
and
(NP the prayer))
(SBAR (WHNP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP lay
(PP-LOC-CLR behind
(NP (NP the letter)
(SBAR (WHNP-2 0)
(S (NP-SBJ the rector)
(VP wrote
(NP *T*-2)
(PP-TMP *PPA*-3))))))
(PP-TMP-3 after
(NP (NP (QP almost a) decade)
(PP of
(NP (NP service)
(PP to
(NP this majestic
church))))))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-2 There)
(VP ought
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP be
(NP-PRD (NP a point)
(SBAR (WHPP-1 beyond
(WHNP which))
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP will not
(VP allow
(S (NP-SBJ ourselves)
(VP to
(VP go
(PP-DIR *T*-1))))
(ADVP *PPA*-3)))))))))
(ADVP-3 regardless
(PP of
(SBAR-NOM (WHNP-4 what)
(S (NP-SBJ Russia)
(VP does
(NP *T*-4))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-2 You)
(VP must
(VP specify
(NP the link type)
(PP-TMP before
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP using
(NP the START command)
(S-CLR *PPA*-1))))
(S-PRP-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP activate
(NP the link)))))))
5.3 *RNR* (“Right Node Raising”)
This type of pseudo-attach is used for those cases in which a constituent
should be interpreted simultaneously in more than one place. (See
section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] for more on shared constituents.)
(S But
(NP-SBJ-2 our outlook)
(VP (VP has
(VP been
(ADJP-PRD *RNR*-1)))
,
and
(VP continues
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD *RNR*-1)))))
,
(ADJP-PRD-1 defensive)))
(S (NP-SBJ One)
(VP knows
(ADVP-CLR better)
,
(ADVP-TMP now)
,
(SBAR (SBAR (WHNP-2 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-2)
(VP has
(NP (NP bone)
(PP-LOC *RNR*-4)))))
and
(SBAR (WHNP-3 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-3)
(VP has
(NP (NP jelly)
(PP-LOC *RNR*-4)))))
(PP-LOC-4 in
(NP his spine)))))
(NP (NP (ADJP so many) enchained demons)
(VP straining
(PP-MNR in
(NP anger))
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP (VP tear
(NP *RNR*-1))
and
(VP gnaw
(PP-CLR on
(NP *RNR*-1)))
(NP-1 his bones))))))
5.4 *ICH* (“Interpret Constituent Here”)
The most common type of pseudo-attach is *ICH*-attach, which is used to
indicate a relationship of constituency between elements separated by
intervening material. For instance, *ICH*-attach is used in “heavy
shift” constructions when the movement results in a configuration in which
it is impossible to attach the constituent to the phrase it belongs with:
(S (NP-SBJ (NP a young woman)
(SBAR *ICH*-1))
(VP entered
(SBAR-1 (WHNP-2 whom)
(S (NP-SBJ she)
(PP-TMP at
(ADVP once))
(VP recognized
(NP *T*-2)
(PP-CLR as
(NP Jemima Broadwood)))))))
5.4.1 Word order
*ICH*-attach is never used solely to indicate word order; there
must also be a difference in attachment height. For example, the
following example does not require *ICH*-attach of the NP containing a
very nice mermaid (here, because the sentence adverbial is attached in
VP):
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP met
(PP-LOC at
(NP the dock))
(NP (NP a
(ADJP very nice)
mermaid)
(SBAR (WHNP-2 who)
(S (NP-SBJ-3 *T*-2)
(VP offered
(S (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP to
(VP take
(NP me)
(PP-CLR for
(NP a swim)))))))))))
However, if the wording were somewhat different, *ICH*-attach would be
appropriate. Here, the adverbial intervenes between a head and its
relative clause, making *ICH*-attach necessary:
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP met
(NP (NP a
(ADJP very nice)
mermaid)
(SBAR *ICH*-1))
(PP-LOC at
(NP the dock))
(SBAR-1 (WHNP-2 who)
(S (NP-SBJ-3 *T*-2)
(VP offered
(S (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP to
(VP take
(NP me)
(PP-CLR for
(NP a swim))))))))))
Likewise, *ICH*-attach is not used to show deviations from canonical word
order in constructions in which the constituency is not affected and where
the appropriate attachment levels are available:
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP put
(PP-PUT on
(NP the shelf))
(NP (NP that book)
(SBAR (WHNP-2 that)
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP loaned
(NP me)
(NP *T*-2)
(NP-TMP the other day)))))))
5.4.2 Further examples
(S (NP-SBJ-2 (NP Nothing)
(PP *ICH*-1))
(VP was
(S (NP-SBJ-3 *-2)
(VP to
(VP be
(VP seen
(NP *-3)))))
(PP-1 but
(NP water))))
(S (NP-SBJ-3 Another attempt
(S *ICH*-1))
(VP will
(VP be
(VP made
(NP *-3)
(NP-TMP this year)
(PP-LOC in
(NP New Orleans))
(S-2 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP resume
(NP the program))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP A stranger)
(NP *ICH*-1))
(VP was
(PP-LOC-PRD before
(NP him))
__
(NP-1 (NP a boy)
(ADJP (ADJP (NP a shade)
larger)
(PP than
(NP himself))))))
(S I could not help calling to mind my little brother's face,
(SBAR-TMP (WHADVP-2 when)
(S (NP-SBJ (NP he)
(NP *ICH*-1))
(VP was
(VP sleeping
(ADVP-TMP *T*-2)
(NP-1 (NP an infant)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the cradle))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP wondered
(SBAR (WHADVP-2 where)
(S (NP-SBJ the superstition
(SBAR *ICH*-1))
(VP had
(VP originated
(ADVP-LOC *T*-2)
(SBAR-1 that
(S it was bad luck for... ))))))))
(S (ADVP However)
,
(NP-SBJ it)
(VP does
(VP require
(NP (NP more personal computer memory)
(PP *ICH*-1))
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP run
(NP *?*))))
(PP-1 than
(NP type 0)))))
5.4.3 Conjunctive Prepositional Phrases
In cases such as the following, the PP should not be pseudo-attached.
Unfortunately, this policy is a bit counter-intuitive to the annotators, so
they are occasionally bracketed with *ICH*-attach anyway. (For example,
more than a third of such “including” constructions in the WSJ
corpus were bracketed with *ICH*.)
- with
(S (NP-SBJ (NP the letters)
(SBAR (WHNP-5 0)
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP specify
(NP *T*-5)))))
(VP follow
(PP with
(NP their definitions))))
- including
(S (NP-SBJ Several ridiculous projects)
(VP continue
,
(PP including
(NP the New International Economic Order))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP Several ridiculous projects)
(PP *ICH*-1))
(VP continue
,
(PP-1 including
(NP the New International Economic Order))))
5.5 *EXP* (“EXPletive”)
In cases where a clausal subject has been extraposed and replaced by an
expletive it, we use a type of pseudo-attach called *EXP*. (In the
small ATIS sample included with this release, it is also used for
existential there.) Use of *EXP*-attach is discussed in more detail
in section 17 [It-Extraposition].
(S (NP-SBJ (NP It)
(SBAR *EXP*-1))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD clear)
(PP to
(NP me))
(SBAR-1 that
(S (NP-SBJ this message)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD unclear))))))
(S (PP To
(NP Flavia))
(NP-SBJ (NP it)
(S *EXP*-1))
(VP is
(ADJP (ADJP more necessary)
(SBAR *ICH*-3))
(S-1 (NP-SBJ-2 *)
(VP to
(VP be
(VP called
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(ADJP-PRD clever))))))
(SBAR-3 than
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP breathe))))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP It)
(S *EXP*-1))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD easy)
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP see
(SBAR (WHADVP-2 why)
(S (NP-SBJ the ancient art)
(VP is
(PP-LOC-PRD on
(NP the ropes))
(ADVP-PRP *T*-2)))))))))
5.6 Punctuation
Punctuation should never be pseudo-attached.
“Two techniques are available to accomplish the platform heading: the use
of external or surveying equipment to establish the proper heading; the use
of the character of the platform components for an indication of true
heading.”
(S (NP-SBJ (NP two techniques)
(NP *ICH*-4))
(VP are
(ADJP-PRD available...)
:
(NP-4 (NP the use of...)
;
(NP the use of...))))
6 Copular Verbs
6.1 Simple copular complements
Complements of the following verbs appear with the -PRD tag. This list
should be considered exhaustive (see [Quirk et al. 1985] sections 16.21-24).
be (friendly/my friend/at home) [adj/n/adv]
appear (happy/the only solution) [adj/n]
feel (annoyed/a fool) [adj/n]
look (pretty/a fine day) [adj/n]
seem (restless/a genius) [adj/n]
smell (sweet) [adj]
sound (surprised/a reasonable idea) [adj/n]
taste (bitter) [adj]
remain (uncertain/good friends) [adj/n]
keep (silent) [adj]
stay (motionless/good friends) [adj/n]
become (older/an expert) [adj/n]
come (true) [adj]
end up (happy/her slave) [adj/n]
get (ready) [adj]
go (sour) [adj]
grow (tired) [adj]
prove (rather useful/his equal) [adj/n]
turn (cold/traitor) [adj/n]
turn out (fortunate/a success) [adj/n]
wind up (drunk/a millionaire) [adj/n]
6.1.1 Adjectival
(S (NP-SBJ The dog)
(VP is/appears/seems
(ADJP-PRD happy)))
(S (NP-SBJ That food)
(VP looks/smells/tastes
(ADJP-PRD awful)))
(S (INTJ Please)
(NP-SBJ *)
(VP keep/remain/stay
(ADJP-PRD silent)))
This includes “pseudo-adjectives” (see section 15 [Small Clauses]).
(S (NP-SBJ Things)
(VP seem
(PP-PRD under
(NP control))))
(S (NP-SBJ Your safety belt)
(VP is-PRD your friend))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The former chief executive)
(VP will
(VP remain
(NP-PRD chairman)))
.)
(S (NP-SBJ The new student)
(VP proved
(NP-PRD an idiot)))
but note:
(S (NP-SBJ The new student)
(VP proved
(NP a theorem)))
Adverbial predicates should only be tagged -PRD when they follow be
or in a do so construction.
- after be
(S (NP-SBJ (NP much)
(PP of
(NP the action)))
(VP was
(PP-LOC-PRD in
(NP heating oil))))
(S (NP-SBJ The party)
(VP will
(VP be
(PP-TMP-PRD at
(NP eleven)))))
(S (NP-SBJ business)
(VP is
(ADVP-PRD up
(NP 35 %))
(PP-TMP in
(NP the past year))))
- do so constructions
(S (SBAR-ADV while the SEC regulates who files)
,
(NP-SBJ the law)
(VP tells
(NP them)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 when)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP do
(ADVP-PRD so)
(ADVP-TMP *T*-1)))))))
(S (S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP attend))
, and
(SINV (ADVP-PRD-TPC-1 so)
(VP does
(ADVP-PRD *T*-1))
(NP-SBJ (NP a television crew)
(PP from
(NP New York City)))))
However, adverbial modifiers are sometimes erroneously tagged -PRD in
sentences such as Mandela remains in prison.
Forms of be can also take clausal complements:
(S (NP-SBJ its purpose)
(VP is
(S-PRD (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP gauge
(NP learning progress))))))
(S (NP-SBJ The theory)
(VP was
(SBAR-PRD that
(S (NP-SBJ the Voice)
(VP is
(NP-PRD a propaganda agency))))))
including some fairly unusual ones:
(S (ADVP-TMP Now)
(NP-SBJ the question)
(VP is :
(SQ-PRD Is
(NP-SBJ Poland)
(ADJP-PRD ready
(PP for
(NP it))))))
However, when be acts as a semimodal, the following S should not get
-PRD:
(S (NP-SBJ-1 You)
(VP are
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP resign
(ADVP-TMP immediately))))))
6.2 Related constructions
It is noted in [Quirk et al. 1985] that, for many of the above verbs with nominal
complements, English speakers (especially Americans) tend to (strongly)
prefer a variant containing to be or like instead of just a
simple NP. The Treebank treats such constructions as follows:
6.2.1 The “like” versions
Verbs that take a complement mediated by like should be bracketed
with a -CLR tag rather than -PRD.
(S (NP-SBJ That)
(VP sounds
(PP-CLR like
(NP a reasonable idea))))
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP looks
(PP-CLR like
(NP a fine day))))
6.2.2 The “to be” versions
Versions with to be are bracketed as complement clauses (as described
in section 15 [Small Clauses], under “Null subject clausal complements”).
(S (NP-SBJ-3 That)
(VP appears
(S (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP to
(VP be
(NP-PRD the only solution))))))
7 Coordination
7.1 Basic information on the level of coordination
Coordination in all cases is done at the lowest possible level.
7.1.1 Word-level
Single-word elements of the same syntactic category are coordinated at
word-level and are annotated with flat structure.
(NP John and Mary)
(NP Susan , John and Mary)
(S (NP-SBJ Baking and eating)
(VP are
(ADJP-PRD fun)))
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Baking
and
eating
(NP cookies)))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD fun)))
7.1.2 Phrase-level
-
When one or more of the coordinated elements are multi-word
(and of the same syntactic type), each element is bracketed with the
appropriate label, as is the immediately dominating node. All coordinating
conjunctions are children of the top phrase node (“conjunction level” or
“coordination level”). (See section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] for more information.)
(NP (NP three cookies)
and
(NP a book))
(NP (NP cookies)
and
(NP a book))
(VP (VP fishing)
and
(VP tying
(NP flies)))
- Exception to the above: coordination of premodifiers in within NP.
The annotation of noun phrases is quite complex, however,
and follows somewhat different guidelines than for the other categories.
See section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] for information on coordination in noun phrases.
7.2 Coordination of unlike syntactic categories (UCP)
In general, coordinated phrases belong to the same syntactic category.
However, it is also possible for coordinated phrases to belong to different
categories. When they do, the phrase node at the level of coordination is
labeled UCP (“Unlike Coordinated Phrase”).
7.2.1 Outside of NPs
Unlike the coordination of single words of the same syntactic category, the
coordination of single words of different syntactic categories is often
shown with phrase-level coordination. When the coordination is not of
modifiers in a noun phrase (see section 7.2.2
below for UCP in NPs), each conjunct is given its own appropriate bracket
label, and the outer coordination is labeled UCP.
(S (NP-SBJ U.S. interest)
(VP may
(VP be
(UCP-PRD (ADJP-PRD big)
and
(VP growing)))))
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP serving
(NP (NP the wishes)
(PP of (NP the client)))
(UCP-MNR (ADVP fairly)
and
(PP in
(NP an efficient manner)))))
UCP may support function tags as well, but only in the case where the
function tag applies to all conjuncts.
-
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP serving
(NP (NP the wishes)
(PP of (NP the client)))
(UCP-MNR (ADVP fairly)
and
(PP in
(NP an efficient manner)))))
(S And
(ADVP-TMP now)
,
(NP-SBJ-1 the woman)
,
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(UCP-PRD (ADJP-PRD tired)
and
(VP trembling)))
,
(VP came
(ADVP-DIR here)
(PP-DIR to
(NP the DeKalb County cannery)))
.)
(S (NP-SBJ America West)
,
(ADVP though)
,
(VP is
(UCP-PRD (NP a smaller airline)
and
(ADVP therefore)
(ADJP (ADJP more affected)
(PP by
(NP (NP the delayed delivery)
(PP of
(NP a single plane))))
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ (NP many)
(PP of
(NP its competitors)))
(VP would
(VP be
(ADJP *?*))))))))
.)
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(UCP-PRD (ADJP (NP Seven years)
late
(PP in
(NP the launching)))
,
(PP (NP (QP $ 1 billion) *U*)
over
(NP budget))
and
(NP (NP a target)
(PP of
(NP anti-nuclear protestors))))
,)
(NP-SBJ-1 Galileo)
(VP has
(VP (ADVP-TMP long)
been
(NP-PRD (NP a symbol)
(PP of
(NP trouble)))))
.)
(S (NP-SBJ His plans and dreams)
(VP had
(VP revolved
(PP-LOC-CLR around
(NP her))
(UCP (ADVP (ADVP so much)
(SBAR *RNR*-1))
and
(PP-TMP for
(ADVP (ADVP so long)
(SBAR *RNR*-1)))
(SBAR-1 that
(S (ADVP-TMP now)
(NP-SBJ he)
(VP felt
(SBAR as if
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP had
(NP nothing)))))))))))
As usual, NP structure is different from the structure of other categories.
When elements that belong to different syntactic categories are
coordinated, and that coordinated structure modifies an NP, the structure
is labeled UCP.
If both conjuncts are single words, no structure is shown inside the UCP.
Note that this is generally not the case outside of NPs — in other
categories, single-word conjuncts are labeled inside UCP.
(NP (UCP federal and state) laws)
Multi-word adjectival modifiers within the UCP should be labeled.
Multi-word nominal modifier within the UCP are often unlabeled. (See
section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] and section 11 [Modification of NP] for more information on nominal modifiers.)
(NP the
(UCP highest quality
and
(ADJP most reasonably priced))
product)
7.3 General guidelines for the bracketing of coordinated structures
7.3.1 Labeling at the level of coordination
A conjunction (sometimes unlabeled, sometimes CONJP) joins two or more
elements, including those that are typologically different and thus
dominated by UCP (“Unlike Coordinated Phrase”). Phrases with identical
bracket labels or part-of-speech tags are of course coordinated under the
appropriate bracket label (e.g., the level of coordination for NPs and for
single-word nouns is labeled NP, etc.).
7.3.2 Function tags at the level of coordination
Function tags appear only on the bracket label at the highest level of
coordination in coordinated phrases of the same phrase type and the same
function.
(S The Burger King worker handled the order
(ADVP-MNR (ADVP very slowly)
but
(ADVP not very carefully)))
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP serving
(NP (NP the wishes)
(PP of (NP the client)))
(UCP-MNR (ADVP fairly)
and
(PP in
(NP an efficient manner)))))
However, if all conjuncts do not share the same function, the function tags
appear on individual conjuncts.
(S (PP (PP-TMP After
(NP the 1987 crash))
, and
(PP-PRP as
(NP (NP a result)
(PP of
(NP (NP the recommendations)
(PP of
(NP many studies)))))))
``circuit breakers'' were devised to allow market participants to
regroup and restore orderly market conditions)
(S But in the ``Bare-Faced Messiah'' case the author found most of his
material
(PP (PP-LOC in
(NP court records))
or
(PP-MNR via
(NP the
(NAC Freedom
(PP of
(NP Information)))
Act))))
7.3.3 Internal structure
-
The internal structure of the coordinated phrase is left flat if
possible. For example, the internal structure of the coordination of
single-words is not shown and thus only the level of coordination is
labeled.
(NP apples and oranges)
(NP the apples and oranges)
(S (NP-SBJ Curious George)
(VP cut and pasted
(NP the pictures)))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP slept and dreamed))
- If at least one of the coordinated phrases is multi-word, coordination
is at the lowest possible level (i.e., the lowest level that includes the
shared constituent and excludes any unshared constituents).
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP (VP slept)
and
(VP dreamed
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP was
(NP-PRD a butterfly)))))))
- NX is used to show the internal structure of coordinate structures
with multi-word conjuncts in NPs. There are no corresponding “X” levels
for other parts of speech. See section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] and for more on the use of NX.
(NP the
(NX (NX red book)
and
(NX yellow pencils)))
- An extended example.
This is an example of the minimal levels used for the coordination of verb
phrases.
-
V-level.
If all conjoined verbs are single-word and all objects and/or modifiers are
shared, coordination is at word level.
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Baking
and
eating
(NP cookies)))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD fun)))
- VP-level.
-
Unshared objects and modifiers.
If there are unshared objects or modifiers, coordination is at the lowest
possible VP-level.
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP (VP Baking
(NP pies))
and
(VP eating
(NP cookies))))
(VP are
(NP-PRD fun activities)))
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP (VP Baking
(PP-LOC in
(NP (NP Grandma's)
kitchen)))
and
(VP eating
(PP-LOC in
(NP bed)))))
(VP are
(ADJP-PRD fun)))
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP will
(VP (VP have
(VP baked
(NP a cake)))
and
(VP have
(VP frosted
(NP the cupcakes)))
(NP-TMP this morning))))
- Shared objects and modifiers with multi-word conjuncts.
Coordination is at the level of the lowest possible VP, and *RNR*-attach is
used when a shared object must be attached at different levels of
structure. Shared modifiers are not *RNR*-attached. (See section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] for
more on *RNR*.)
(S (NP-SBJ-1 *)
(VP Do
(VP avoid
(S (NP-SBJ-2 *-1)
(VP (VP puncturing
(NP *RNR*-5))
or
(VP cutting
(PP-CLR into
(NP *RNR*-5)))
(NP-5 meats)
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP test
(NP them)))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP will
(VP (VP have
(VP baked
(NP *RNR*-1)))
and
(VP have
(VP frosted
(NP *RNR*-1)))
(NP-1 the cake))))
- S-level.
Coordination is at S-level only in the case where each conjunct has an
overt subject (whether coreferential or not).
(S (NP-SBJ She)
(VP was
(VP eating
(ADVP-MNR quietly)
(S-ADV (S (NP-SBJ her head)
(VP hanging))
,
and
(S (NP-SBJ her scaly, dead-looking foot)
(VP lifted
(NP-ADV just a little)
(PP-CLR from
(NP the ground))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP admire
(S (S (NP-SBJ your)
(VP hanging
(NP your head)))
and
(S (NP-SBJ your)
(VP dangling
(NP your feet))))))
7.4 Gapping
This section presents the official annotation policy for gapped structures,
but also describes some likely common alternates found in the corpus.
7.4.1 VP gapping
In the case of VP gapping, when the second conjunct lacks both subject and
verb, coordination is at VP-level and gap-coindexing (also referred to as
template gapping) is used. (See section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] and section 4 [Null Elements]
for more on the template approach to gapping.)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP (VP cooked
(NP-6 soup)
(NP-TMP-7 Wednesday))
and
(VP (NP=6 potatoes)
(NP-TMP=7 Thursday)))
.)
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP (VP is
(ADVP-TMP-5 sometimes)
(NP-PRD-6 a gentleman))
but
(VP (ADVP-TMP=5 usually)
(NP-PRD=6 a child))))
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP (VP is
(ADJP-PRD-7 endearing))
and
(VP (ADVP-TMP sometimes)
(ADJP-PRD=7 amusing))))
A common alternate to VP gapping in these cases (i.e., when the second
conjunct lacks both a verb and a subject), especially when a modifier
occurs only in the second conjunct, is to coordinate the predicates,
leaving the modifier at conjunction level. Therefore one might find two of
the above sentences bracketed as follows:
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP is
(NP-PRD (ADVP-TMP sometimes)
(NP a gentleman)
but
(ADVP-TMP usually)
(NP a child))))
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD (ADJP endearing)
and
(ADVP-TMP sometimes)
(ADJP amusing))))
The problem is that ADVPs inside ADJPs are generally regarded as simple
intensifiers, such as very, somewhat or a little, and sometimes here is an “S-level” temporal modifier. The official
solution is to go up a level of coordination and gap, but some annotators
feel this is excessive, and would like a simpler way that still gets sometimes interpreted at a version of “S-level”.
Below, in general and in particular are interpreted as
adjuncts to NP, rather than sentential; consequently template gapping is
not used.
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP spurred
(PRT on)
(PP by
(NP-LGS (NP (NP the growth)
(PP of
(NP government))
(PP in
(ADJP general)))
and
(NP (NP (NP budget gimmicks)
and
(NP deceptive management))
(PP in
(NP particular))))))
.)
7.4.2 Gapping in a small clause
Gap-coindexing may be used in a small clause when there is a modifier with
one or both of the predicates. As with VP gapping, the official policy is
to gap as in the first example, but the second example represents a common
alternative.
(SBAR (WHNP-8 who)
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP find
(S (S (NP-SBJ *T*-8)
(ADJP-PRD-1 endearing))
and
(S (ADVP-TMP sometimes)
(ADJP-PRD=1 amusing))))))
(SBAR (WHNP-9 who)
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP find
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-9)
(ADJP-PRD (ADJP endearing)
and
(ADVP-TMP sometimes)
(ADJP amusing))))))
7.4.3 Gapping at S-level
The level of coordination in a gapping structure must be S-level when both
a subject and a VP element (e.g., VP, object, or adjunct) are present in
the second conjunct.
-
Subject and VP
(NP fears
(SBAR that
(S (S (NP-SBJ-2 the Thatcher government)
(VP may
(VP be
(PP-PRD-3 in
(NP turmoil)))))
and
(S (NP-SBJ=2-1 (NP Britain 's)
Labor Party)
(VP=3 positioned
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP regain
(NP (NP control)
(PP of
(NP the
government)))))))))))
- Subject and object:
(S (S (NP-SBJ-10 Mary)
(VP likes
(NP-11 potatoes)))
and
(S (NP-SBJ=10 Bill)
,
(NP=11 ostriches)))
- Subject and adjunct:
(S (S (NP-SBJ-1 Mary)
(VP likes
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP swim
(PP-TMP-2 on
(NP Tuesdays)))))))
and
(S (NP-SBJ=1 Bill)
(PP-TMP=2 on
(NP Wednesdays))))
7.4.4 Gapping in PP
Coordination of NPs (as in the first example) is a likely alternate to gapping
within PPs (as in the second example).
( (S (NP-SBJ-1 The Nashville plan)
(VP has
(VP become
(VP recognized
(NP *-1)
(PP-CLR as
(NP (NP (ADVP perhaps)
(NP the
(ADJP most acceptable))
and
(ADVP thus)
(NP the
(ADJP most practical)))
(SBAR (WHNP-2 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP put
(NP *T*-2)
(PP-CLR into
(NP effect))
(PP-LOC in
(NP the
troubled
South)))))))))))
.))
( (S (NP-SBJ-1 The Nashville plan)
(VP has
(VP become
(VP recognized
(NP *-1)
(PP-CLR (PP as
(ADVP-3 perhaps)
(NP-4 (NP the
(ADJP most acceptable))
(SBAR *RNR*-5)))
and
(PP (ADVP=3 thus)
(NP=4 (NP the
(ADJP most practical))
(SBAR *RNR*-5)))
(SBAR-5 (WHNP-2 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP put
(NP *T*-2)
(PP-CLR into
(NP effect))
(PP-LOC in
(NP the
troubled
South))))))))))
.))
7.4.5 Gapping in NP
(S (NP-SBJ-111 The remaining
(QP $ 21.9 billion)
*U*)
(VP could
(VP be
(VP raised
(NP *-111)
(PP through
(NP (NP (NP the sale)
(PP of
(NP-2 short-term Treasury bills))
(PP-3 *NOT*))
,
(NP (NP (NP=2 two-year notes)
(PP-TMP=3 in
(NP November)))
and
(NP (NP=2 five-year notes)
(PP-TMP=3 in
(NP early December)))))))))
.)
7.4.6 Some difficult cases
-
*NOT*
One may occasionally find annotation such as the following, where the
anti-placeholder *NOT* indicates that certain items found in the second
conjunct are not interpreted in the first. See section 4 [Null Elements] for more on the
use of *NOT*. For example, here perhaps and the if-clause
go only with the second conjunct, indicated by *NOT* in the first conjunct.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP Robert Schneider)
(PP of
(NP Duff & Phelps)))
(VP sees
(S (NP-SBJ paper-company stock prices)
(VP (VP falling
(NP-EXT-2 (NP 10 %)
to
(NP 15 %))
(PP-TMP in
(NP 1990))
(ADVP-1 *NOT*)
(SBAR-ADV-3 *NOT*))
,
(VP (ADVP=1 perhaps)
(NP-EXT=2 25 %)
(SBAR-ADV=3 if
(S (NP-SBJ there)
(VP 's
(NP-PRD a recession)))))))))
- Template gapping with *RNR*-attach.
*RNR*-attach may be used in gapping structures for non-complements that are
shared across clauses. In the following example, the adjunct (in the
rush-hour tremor...) is extracted from a subordinate clause in the first
conjunct but from a main clause in the second. Note that *RNR*-attach is
not usually used with adjuncts but is used here because the clauses over
which gapping takes place are not symmetrical. See section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] for more on
the use of *RNR*.
(S (S (NP-SBJ-3 (QP At least 270)
people)
(VP were
(VP reported
(S (NP-SBJ-1 *-3)
(VP-2 killed
(NP *-1)
(PP-LOC *RNR*-5))))))
and
(S (NP-SBJ=3-6 1,400)
(VP=2 injured
(NP *-6)
(PP-LOC *RNR*-5)))
(PP-LOC-5 in
(NP (NP the rush-hour tremor)
(SBAR (WHNP-4 that)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-4)
(VP caused
(NP (NP billions)
(PP of
(NP (NP dollars)
(PP of
(NP damage)))))
(PP-LOC along
(NP (NP 100 miles)
(PP of
(NP the
San Andreas fault))))))))))
7.5 Bracketing of coordinating conjunctions
7.5.1 Coordinating conjunctions
-
Single-word.
Single-word conjunctions are unlabeled.
and, but, or
yet, so
less, plus, minus
(NP (NP a hammer)
and
(NP a nail))
- Multi-word.
Multi-word conjunctions are labeled CONJP, with flat internal structure.
Included in this list are “quasi-conjunctions”, a somewhat open class of
phrases that can function as conjunction or adverb, depending on context
and annotator interpretation. See section
7.5.2 for more on the annotation of
these phrases.
as well as
not to mention
rather than
instead of
if not (less frequently treated as a conjunction)
along with (less frequently treated as a conjunction)
etc.
(S (NP-SBJ That)
(VP builds
(NP (NP confidence)
,
(NP self sufficiency)
,
(CONJP not to mention)
(NP critical regulatory net worth)))
.)
(S (NP-SBJ She)
(VP valued
(NP wisdom
(CONJP as well as)
knowledge))
.)
- Discontinuous conjunctions.
Only multi-word portions of discontinuous conjunctions are labeled CONJP.
Single-word portions are left unlabeled.
not only ...but
not only ...but also
not only ...but instead
not only ...but rather
not alone ...but
not alone ...but also
not alone ...but instead
not alone ...but rather
not just ...but
not just ...but also
not just ...but instead
not ...but instead
not ...but
etc.
(S (NP-SBJ The proposal)
(VP represents
(NP (CONJP not alone)
(NP his own district)
but
(NP (NP all the people)
(PP of
(NP our country))))))
(S (NP-SBJ Her actions)
(VP were
(ADJP-PRD (CONJP not only)
(ADJP compassionate)
(CONJP but also)
(ADJP (ADJP inspiring)
and
(ADJP indicative
(PP of
(SBAR-NOM what one can do
with 50 cents)))))))
7.5.2 Quasi-coordinating conjunctions
The quasi-coordinating conjunctions are treated as ordinary coordinating
conjunctions when they act as such. Otherwise, for example when fronted,
they are bracketed as SBAR (e.g., if not and though) or PP
(e.g., than and as well as).
if not
though
rather than
as well as
etc.
-
Fronted constituents. When a putative conjunction occurs as the first
element of a fronted phrase, it is interpreted as the head of that phrase
rather than as a conjunction, and the correct bracketing is ADVP or PP.
(S (PP Instead of
(NP beans))
,
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP will
(VP eat
(NP pizza)))
.)
(S (SBAR-ADV If not
(FRAG-TMP next week))
,
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP suggest
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP start
(NP-TMP (NP sometime)
(ADVP-TMP soon))))))
.)
- Adjuncts. When a putative conjunction occurs after the verb and
introduces a sentential adjunct and where there is more than a typological
difference between the putative conjuncts, the correct bracketing is ADVP
or PP.
(S (NP-SBJ-2 I)
(VP will
(VP eat
(NP take-out pizza)
,
(PP instead of
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP eating
(PP-LOC at
(NP your house)))))))
.)
- Commas. The presence of a comma before expressions such as rather
than and instead of sometimes suggests an ADVP or PP
interpretation (depending on the judgment of the annotator). Thus, the
following interpretations are equally likely:
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP ate
(NP pizza)
,
(PP rather than
(NP beans)))
.)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP ate
(NP (NP pizza)
,
(CONJP rather than)
(NP beans)))
.)
Other conjunctions such as as well as retain the CONJP interpretation
in the presence of a comma.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP ate
(NP pizza
,
(CONJP as well as)
beans))
.)
Note that some non-conjunction interpretations appear in the corpus due
to a mid-corpus policy change. This section represents the most recent
policy on labeling of competing conjunction/adverb interpretations and
covers the majority of the annotation in the present corpus.
When it is used as a “quantifier”, times is placed inside a QP
(see the section on mathematical language in section 11 [Modification of NP]):
(NP (QP three times)
the government's damages)
Otherwise, it retains the conjunction interpretation:
(S (NP-SBJ three times five)
(VP equals
(NP fifteen))
.)
except in the case where it is preceded by the verb multiply, in
which case the matter is unresolved. Fortunately, the Wall Street Journal
corpus contains no such examples.
8 Shared Complements and Modifiers in Coordinate Structures
This section describes the general approach to the annotation of modifiers
and complements that are shared by more than one head. Along the way, we
will have to, of course, consider the bracketing of unshared
modifiers; thus, much of the unshared-modifier policy is also described
below. As the annotation of shared elements necessarily involves the
annotation of coordinate structures, it may also be helpful to consult
section 7 [Coordination].
Some other issues in coordination are also discussed here, including
coordination of NP modifiers (see section
8.4) and certain complex NPs analyzed as
having a shared head (see section 8.5).
8.1 Premodifiers
When it is not possible to tell from context whether or not a modifier is
shared, the default in all cases is to analyze the item as shared.
Shared bracketing in the case of NPs is flat.
In the case of shared premodifiers of VPs, the premodifier may be attached
either immediately before the VP or immediately inside the VP. This
variation occurs with both coordinated and non-coordinated VPs, and is
regarded as semantically and syntactically insignificant.
(NP ripe apples and bananas)
(S (NP-SBJ Grover)
(ADVP-MNR deliberately)
(VP chewed and winked))
(S (NP-SBJ Grover)
(VP (ADVP-MNR deliberately)
chewed and winked))
Where it is clear that the modifier is not shared, we generally use more
structure in order to indicate which head the modifier goes with:
(NP (NP ripe apples)
and
(NP cinnamon))
(NP fresh
(NX (NX ripe apples)
and
(NX cinnamon)))
(See section 3 on
page ?? and section 2 [Notation] for an
explanation of the NX bracket label.)
(S (NP-SBJ Grover)
(VP (VP (ADVP-MNR noisily)
chewed)
and
(VP winked)))
In other respects, the annotation of premodifiers of verbs and that of
nouns differ significantly, as laid out in the following sections.
This section describes the annotation of verbs with shared adverbial
premodifiers.
- Labeling.
All modifiers of VP are labeled, including one-word adverbs (this is in
contrast to single-word modifiers of NP, which are left unlabeled).
(S (NP-SBJ Curious George)
(ADVP-MNR carefully)
(VP cut and pasted
(NP the pictures)))
Exceptions to this labeling policy are not (whether
sentential or constituent negation), single-word (including discontinuous)
conjunctions such as and, but, neither...nor and
floating quantifiers such as all and both. Some adverbs
that behave somewhat like conjunctions are often also left unlabeled, such
as then, thus, only, so, also.
(S (NP-SBJ Curious George)
(VP neither cut nor pasted
(NP the pictures)))
- Level of attachment.
An adverbial that is outside the VP it modifies (either at coordination
level or at S-level) is interpreted as shared. Again, the default in
unclear cases is to bracket the adverbial as shared.
- Non-coordinated VPs.
In the case of non-coordinated VPs, premodifiers are either left outside
the VP, as in (a), or put inside it, as in (b). Although the variation is
in general free, the adverbials inside the VP are considerably more likely
to be -MNR or degree adverbs. Overall, the bracketing in (a) is more
common.
(a) (S (NP-SBJ Curious George)
(ADVP-MNR carefully)
(VP cut
(NP the pictures)))
(b) (S (NP-SBJ Curious George)
(VP (ADVP-MNR carefully)
cut
(NP the pictures)))
- Coordinated VPs with shared modifiers.
Shared premodifying adverbials follow the same tendencies for coordinated
verbs as they do for single verbs, as described just above for
“non-coordinated VPs”.
(a) (S (NP-SBJ Curious George)
(ADVP-MNR carefully)
(VP cut and pasted
(NP the pictures)))
(S (NP-SBJ Curious George)
(ADVP-MNR carefully)
(VP (VP cut
(NP the pictures))
and
(VP pasted
(NP them))))
(b) (S (NP-SBJ Curious George)
(VP (ADVP-MNR carefully)
cut and pasted
(NP the pictures)))
(S (NP-SBJ Curious George)
(VP (ADVP-MNR carefully)
(VP cut
(NP the pictures))
and
(VP pasted
(NP them))))
- Note on unshared premodifiers in coordinate structures.
In the case where a premodifier modifies only one of the conjuncts, the
modifier is put inside the VP it modifies.
(S (NP Grover)
(VP (VP (ADVP-MNR noisily)
chewed)
and
(VP winked)))
There is, however, some variation in the bracketing of certain adverbs
premodifying second VP conjuncts, particularly then, thus, also, even,
therefore, so, which almost act like conjunctions. They are sometimes
left at conjunction level, and they may be unlabeled or labeled ADVP.
(S (NP Grover)
(VP (VP (ADVP-MNR noisily)
chewed)
and
(ADVP then)
(VP winked)))
This section describes the annotation of pre-head modifiers of coordinated
noun phrase heads, including adjectival and nominal modifiers, possessives,
and determiners.
- Nominal premodifiers.
- Single head of NP.
The interpretation of modifiers that are themselves nominal tends to be
highly ambiguous and subject to individual interpretation. For example, in
the noun phrase the primary college entrance examination, one person
may have a clear intuition that the college is primary, while another
may be sure that the examination is primary. Similarly, in U.S.
patent and copyright owners, one person may think that the owners
are U.S., while another may believe that the patents and copyrights
are U.S.
In order to avoid spending large amounts of time imposing arbitrary
solutions to this problem, we try to avoid showing any structure for
nominal modifiers:
(NP the primary college entrance examination)
(NP U.S. patent and copyright owners)
(NP the loan and real estate reserves)
In general, we avoid showing either the internal structure or the extent of
modification of noun modifiers, regardless of the strength of the
annotator's intuition in a particular example.
- Multiple heads.
This policy for NPs with single heads extends to those with multiple heads:
if the only unshared modifiers are nominal, we annotate with flat
structure.
(NP the user and system identification or password)
(NP Manhattan phone book and tour guide)
(NP the new phone book and tour guide)
(NP high-priced red Burgundies and Cabernets and Chardonnays)
(NP tobacco consumption
and
lung-cancer mortality
research)
However, proper names are frequently annotated with internal structure
(although officially they should be treated as other nominal modifiers).
(NP (NP Arthur Dent)
and
(NP Ford Prefect))
(NP (NP Mr. Kent)
and
(NP Ms. Lane))
(NP (NP France)
and
(NP Hong Kong))
- Other premodifiers.
The interpretation of adjectives, possessives, and determiners tends to be
more uniform, so more structure is shown for such modifiers when unshared.
- Shared.
When multiple heads shared the same modifiers, a flat structure is used.
(NP ripe apples and bananas)
(NP the apples and bananas)
(NP the seven ripe apples and bananas)
(NP your old apples and bananas)
However, the modifiers themselves get the same internal structure that
they would get in a non-coordinated NP.
(NP the (ADJP very ripe) apples and bananas)
(NP (NP Sharon 's)
apples and bananas)
(NP (NP (NP Sharon 's)
and
(NP Anthony 's))
apples and bananas)
(NP seven
(ADJP very old)
apples and bananas)
- Unshared.
When there are unshared modifiers, added structure (usually NP adjunction)
shows which modifiers go with which head.
(NP (NP my dog)
and
(NP your cat))
(NP (NP apples)
and
(NP fresh basil))
(NP (NP (NP Bob 's)
skirt)
and
(NP (NP Tracy 's)
suit))
When there are unshared adjectives, determiners, or possessives, we
frequently end up showing structure for nominal modifiers as well.
(NP (NP our science curriculum)
and
(NP our testing policies))
(NP (NP trade conflicts)
and
(NP sluggish exports))
(NP (NP accelerated unfair-trade investigations)
and
(NP stiff trade sanctions))
(NP-LGS (NP rising labor costs)
and
(NP the strong yen))
- NX: combination of shared and unshared modifiers.
So far we have only considered cases in which all the modifiers are shared
or all the modifiers are unshared. When there is a mixture, we add a level
of structure called NX.
-
- Definition of NX.
-
In the case where a noun is modified by an unshared modifier and also
shares non-nominal premodifiers with another noun, the NX bracket
label is used. That is, unshared items are lumped together with their
respective noun heads and bracketed NX, with the shared modifier(s) outside
NX (at NP level). The NX levels are then coordinated at the lowest level
possible, as usual.
NX brackets contain the head of the NP and its (unshared) modifiers in
complicated NPs where both shared an unshared modifiers are involved. It
does not correspond to any particular linguistic structure, although it
occasionally resembles “N-bar”. Rather, it exists only to show which
modifiers go with which NP head, and is only used when the extent of
modification would not otherwise be clear.
The NAC label, described in section 11 [Modification of NP], plays a similar role of
indicating modifiers that go together. However, NAC is only used for
pre-head modifiers, while NX always contains the head (or
heads) of the NP in which it is found.
- Examples.
(NP some
(ADJP very old)
(NX (NX red apples)
and
(NX bananas)))
(NP the remarkable
(NX (NX former New Democracy Party representative)
and
(NX (NX known political enemy)
(PP of
(NP Mr. Mitsotakis)))))
(NP (NP the farm stand 's)
(NX (NX hard apples)
and
(NX mushy bananas)))
Note that as before at NP level, nominal modifiers may end up with
structure when one of the other conjuncts has an unshared modifier that is
non-nominal.
(NP Manhattan
(NX (NX phone book)
and
(NX exhausted guide)))
(NP the 187
(NX (NX network affiliates)
and
(NX independent TV stations)))
Note that both conjuncts are labeled NX even in the case where only one of
the conjuncts is multi-word:
(NP the
(ADJP expensive and hard-to-find)
(NX (NX ripe apples)
and
(NX cinnamon)))
(NP some
(NX (NX red apples)
and
(NX bananas)))
- With nominal modifiers.
When all of the unshared modifiers are nominal, NX should not be used.
However, sometimes NX structure is used anyway, especially with proper
nouns. But such structure is much less likely to happen when the
coordination has to be at NX level than when it can be at NP level. (See
page
?? on
such structure at NP level.)
(NP the
(NX (NX World Bank)
and
(NX International Monetary Fund)))
This may even happen when the shared modifiers are nominal, though
that is even more unlikely.
(NP NY investors
(NX (NX Douglas A. Kass)
and
(NX Anthony Pedore)))
- (Pre)determiner vs. discontinuous conjunction.
Note that some shared elements (e.g., both, either) have both
(pre)determiner and conjunction uses. Roughly, the word in question
receives the determiner analysis when it is referential and the conjunction
analysis when it is part of a discontinuous conjunction.
The policy with respect to the determiner/conjunction distinction assumed
here follows the POS tagging policy given in the POS guidelines [Santorini 1990].
The distinction is made in the POS tagging but
also has implications for the syntactic annotation.
When single-word conjuncts are involved, the bracketing of conjunctions and
shared determiners is identical (i.e., the annotation is flat). When it is
not clear whether the determiner or conjunction analysis is correct, the
default is to annotate as conjunction.
In the following examples, both and either are annotated as
part of the discontinuous conjunctions both...and and either...or:
(NP both boys and girls)
(NP both digital and IBM systems)
(NP (UCP both
Treebank
and
non-Treebank)
policies)
(S (NP-SBJ Either
(NP a boy)
or
(NP a girl))
(VP could
(VP sing)))
(S (NP-SBJ Either a boy or girl)
(VP could
(VP sing)))
(NP either sweet potato or mashed potato
mix)
Compare with the following, where both and either are annotated
as (pre)determiners:
(NP both
(ADJP large, red and shiny)
balls)
(NP both
the
(ADJP large, red and shiny)
balls)
(S (NP-SBJ Either boy or girl)
(VP could
(VP sing)))
(NP either
(NX (NX sweet potato
(NX *RNR*-9))
or
(NX mashed potato
(NX *RNR*-9))
(NX-9 mix)))
8.2 Complements
- Overt complements.
- Single-word VPs.
The internal structure of coordinated single-word verbs is not shown and
the shared object is attached under the VP.
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP baked and frosted
(NP the cake)))
This is an example of what is meant by “coordinate low”, where here
coordination is at the level of V rather than VP. Note that the following
structure is implicit in the annotation of single-word conjuncts and is
retrievable from the POS tagging:
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP (v (v baked)
and
(v frosted))
(NP the cake)))
- Multi-word VPs.
“Multi-word VPs” may include negation, auxiliaries, particles, adverbs,
other objects or adjuncts, etc. Shared complements in multi-word VPs are
attached at the level of coordination and *RNR*-attached into each
conjunct. See section 5 [Pseudo-Attach] for a description of *RNR*-attach.
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP (VP baked
(NP *RNR*-1))
and
(VP (ADVP-MNR carefully)
frosted
(NP *RNR*-1))
(NP-1 the cake)))
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP (VP likes
(NP *RNR*-8))
but
(VP will
not
(VP buy
(NP *RNR*-8)))
(NP-8 the suit)))
(S (NP-SBJ Mary)
(VP (VP handed
(NP the suit)
(PP-DTV *RNR*-6))
and/but
(VP mailed
(NP the tie)
(PP-DTV *RNR*-6))
(PP-DTV-6 to
(NP John))))
The dictum coordinate low also requires that coordination be at the
lowest possible VP level in the case where there are embedded VPs, as in
the difference between will have baked and may have frosted and will have baked and frosted, where coordination is lower in the latter:
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP (VP will
(VP have
(VP baked
(NP *RNR*-1)))
and
(VP may
(VP have
(VP frosted
(NP *RNR*-1)))
(NP-1 the cake)))))
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP will
(VP have
(VP baked and frosted
(NP the cake)))))
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP will
(VP (VP have
(VP baked
(NP *RNR*-1)))
and
(VP have
(VP frosted
(NP *RNR*-1)))
(NP-1 the cake))))
If coordinated verbs share some complements (here, spring goods) but
not others (here, to Campeau stores), the shared complement is
*RNR*-attached into each conjunct and the stranded constituent is
*ICH*-attached into the VP it is associated with.
(NP (NP the investment)
(VP required
(NP *)
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP (VP make
(NP *RNR*-3))
and
(VP ship
(NP *RNR*-3)
(PP-DIR *ICH*-4))
(NP-3 spring goods)
(PP-DIR-4 to
(NP Campeau stores)))))))
Note: The term “multi-word VP” should not be confused with “multi-word
verb”, which refers to objects such as spot check, pied pipe, etc.
The rare multi-word verbs in the corpus are bracketed flat, as follows with
test market:
( (S (NP-SBJ Adolph Coors Co.)
(VP said
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ its Coors Brewing Co. unit)
(VP will
(VP test market
(NP (NP a new line)
(PP of
(NP bottled water)))
(PP-LOC in
(NP the West))
(PP-TMP beginning
(NP early next year)))))))
.))
See section 26 [Orphans] for more on multi-word prepositions and multi-word adverbs.
- With auxiliaries.
Auxiliaries that share a verb are coordinated low (i.e., left flat),
regardless of punctuation and possible intonation breaks that might
otherwise suggest an *RNR* analysis.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP can and will
(VP leave
(PP-TMP by
(NP midnight)))))
A VP shared by a “multi-word auxiliary” (here, soon will be) is
*RNR*-attached into each conjunct. (Note: Semi-auxiliaries such as ought to and be able to are bracketed as a VP — S series. See
section 4 [Null Elements] for more on semi-auxiliaries.)
(NP (NP the number)
(PP of
(NP (NP country funds)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ-2 *T*-1)
(VP (VP are
(VP *RNR*-3))
or
(VP (ADVP-TMP soon)
will
(VP be
(VP *RNR*-3)))
(VP-3 listed
(NP *-2)
(PP-LOC in
(NP (NP New York)
or
(NP London))))))))))
- Coordinated verbs that do not form a phrasal unit.
Some single word verbs may share an object without together forming a
single VP. That is, in cases where an intonation break is required after
the first verb, the structure will be annotated as coordinated VPs rather
than coordinated Vs, with the shared argument *RNR*-attached to each
single-word verb. Note that this *RNR*-attach is never available to
single-word auxiliary verbs (see the preceding section “With
auxiliaries”).
(S (NP-SBJ the likely consequence)
(VP would
(VP be
(S-PRD (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP (VP weaken
(NP *RNR*-1))
,
(CONJP rather than)
(VP strengthen
(NP *RNR*-1))
(NP-1 (NP the control)
(SBAR that ...))))))))
It is recognized that the intonation break is a difficult and only
marginally reliable test. So the default in these cases is to
coordinate low (i.e., leave as a single VP with coordinated Vs) unless the
annotator feels quite sure that the *RNR* analysis is merited.
- Null complements.
- Single-word VPs.
The null object in passive constructions (NP *) and the trace of
wh-movement or topicalization (NP *T*) may also be shared. The trace is
attached inside the flat VP. (See section 7 [Coordination] for the bracketing of coordinated
single-word VPs.)
(NP (NP the athletes)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP have
(VP wooed and won
(NP *T*-1))))))
In passive constructions, both the null, which is coindexed to the surface
subject, and the by-phrase are arguments of VP attached inside VP.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The pictures)
(VP were
(VP cut and pasted
(NP *-1)
(PP by
(NP-LGS Curious George)))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The car)
(VP was
(VP washed and waxed
(NP *-1))
(PP by
(NP-LGS Amy))))
- Multi-word VPs.
If one of the VPs consists of more than one word (was washed and
will be waxed, clipped and put on the refrigerator door) or if
the object must be attached at different levels (was washed and sat
on, see or look for), then multiple traces, each with
the same index, are used. That is, null elements are not *RNR*-attached
and instead multiple instantiations of the null are shown.
- Passive examples.
(S (NP-SBJ-6 The car)
(VP (VP was
(VP washed
(NP *-6)))
and
(VP will
(VP be
(VP waxed
(NP *-6))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-6 The car)
(VP (VP was
(VP washed
(NP *-6)))
and
(VP polished
(PRT up)
(NP *-6))))
(S (NP-SBJ-6 The car)
(VP (VP was
(VP washed
(NP *-6)))
and
(VP sat
(PP-CLR on
(NP *-6)))))
(S (NP-SBJ-2 (NP (QP No fewer than 24)
country funds))
(VP have
(VP been
(VP (VP launched
(NP *-2))
or
(VP registered
(NP *-2)
(PP-CLR with
(NP regulators)))
(NP-TMP this year)))))
- Wh-movement and topicalization examples.
(NP (NP one)
(PP of
(NP (NP those columns)
(SBAR (WHNP-2 that)
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP (VP clipped
(NP *T*-2))
and
(VP put
(NP *T*-2)
(PP-PUT on
(NP the refrigerator door)))))))))
((S (WHNP-1 Who)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP (VP see
(NP *T*-1))
or
(VP look
(PP-CLR for
(NP *T*-1)))))
?))
(S (NP-TPC-6 John)
(NP-SBJ-7 I)
(VP ca n't
(VP stand
(S (NP-SBJ *-7)
(VP to
(VP (VP hear
(PP-CLR about
(NP *T*-6)))
or
(VP see
(NP *T*-6))))))))
(Note that in Treebank bracketing, only clauses (S or SBAR) are
recognized as complements of NPs.)
- Unshared complements.
If the complement is unshared, it belongs inside only the relevant NP.
(NP (NP the basketball promise)
and
(NP his carefully thought-out decision
(S to keep it)))
- Shared complements.
As with verbs, shared complements of nouns are placed at the level of
coordination. (As usual, when it is not clear whether a complement is
shared or not, the default option is to bracket it as shared.)
(NP the belief and declaration
(SBAR that the world is flat))
(NP group decisions and attempts
(S to go to puppetry school))
In cases where coordination does not result in flat structure (such as when
there are unshared non-nominal premodifiers), the shared complement is
placed at the level of coordination and *RNR*-attached into each conjunct.
(NP (NP his belief
(SBAR *RNR*-5))
and
(NP your subsequent declaration
(SBAR *RNR*-5))
(SBAR-5 that
(S the world is flat)))
(NP (NP the right
(S *RNR*-1))
, but not
(NP the obligation
(S *RNR*-1))
,
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP sell
(NP a financial instrument)
(PP-CLR at
(NP a specified price))))))
If modifiers force the use of NX, the complement clause should again be
placed at the level of coordination and RNR-attached into each conjunct.
(NP the
(NX (NX growing urge
(S *RNR*-2))
and
(NX hard-to-resist temptation
(S *RNR*-2))
(S-2 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP sleep
(NP-TMP all morning))))))
8.2.3 Prepositions
- Single-word PPs.
Coordinated single-word PPs are annotated with flat structure just like
other single-word conjuncts (e.g., went in and out the door).
(S (NP-SBJ The cat)
(VP went
(PP-DIR in and out
(NP the door))))
- Multi-word PPs.
The term “multi-word PP” should not be confused with “multi-word
preposition”, which refers to sequences of prepositions that are annotated
with flat structure (e.g., instead of, because of, etc.). (See
section 26 [Orphans] for a list of multi-word prepositions).
Multi-word PPs require an extra level of structure. Shared complements of
multi-word PPs are attached at coordination level and *RNR*-attached into
each conjunct.
(NP (NP A unit of data)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ-2 *T*-1)
(VP is
(VP moved
(NP *-2)
(PP-DIR (PP into
(NP *RNR*-3))
or
(PP out
(PP of
(NP *RNR*-3)))
(NP-3 the computer)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ The average coupon)
(VP is
(PP-PRD (PP (NP-ADV (QP about 18) cents)
off
(NP *RNR*-3))
,
or
(PP (NP-ADV 15 percent)
off
(NP *RNR*-3))
,
(NP-3 (NP the regular price)
(PP of
(NP the product))))))
Such examples may be additionally annotated with PRN (“parenthetical”)
because of the commas, though the rest of the structure remains the same.
See section 2 [Notation] for more on PRN.
(S (NP-SBJ The average coupon)
(VP is
(PP-PRD (PP (NP-ADV (QP about 18) cents)
off
(NP *RNR*-1))
(PRN ,
or
(PP (NP-ADV 15 percent)
off
(NP *RNR*-1))
,)
(NP-1 (NP the regular price)
(PP of
(NP the product))))))
8.2.4 Adjectives
Adjectives are handled much like verbs. The shared constituent is attached
at coordination level, and if the coordinated adjectives are multi-word,
the shared item is *RNR*-attached.
(ADJP eager and ready
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP go))))
(ADJP (ADJP very eager
(S *RNR*-5))
but
(ADJP (ADVP not quite)
ready
(S *RNR*-5))
(S-5 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP go))))
8.3 Adjuncts and postmodifiers
- Overt postmodifiers in the VP.
- Flat VP → adjunct inside VP.
Because all postverbal elements are attached inside the VP, postverbal
shared modifiers of coordinated VPs are also put at coordination level.
(S (NP-SBJ The villain)
(VP sang and danced
(PP-LOC in
(NP the park))))
- Multi-word VPs → attach at coordination level.
If the coordination does not result in flat structure, the adjunct is
placed at the lowest possible level of coordination, but not
*RNR*-attached. Adjuncts attached at coordination level can be assumed to
be interpreted at the same level in each conjunct, namely as an adjunct of
each main verb.
(S (NP-SBJ-2 (NP (QP No fewer than 24)
country funds))
(VP have
(VP been
(VP (VP launched
(NP *-2))
or
(VP registered
(NP *-2)
(PP-CLR with
(NP regulators)))
(NP-TMP this year)))))
(S (NP-SBJ The villain)
(VP (VP sang
(ADVP-MNR brightly))
and
(VP danced
(ADVP-MNR wildly))
(PP-LOC in
(NP the park))))
The lowest possible level of coordination may be S-level:
(S (PP In
(NP other words))
,
(S (NP-SBJ economic growth)
(VP would
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD lower))))
and
(S (NP-SBJ unemployment)
(VP would
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD higher))))
(PP-TMP for
(NP a few years))
.)
- Interpretation in different clauses → adjunct at
coordination level, *RNR*-attach used.
*RNR*-attach may be used for non-complements when they are shared across
clauses. In the following example, the adjunct is extracted from a
subordinate clause in the first conjunct but from a main clause in the
second. *RNR*-attach is not normally used with adjuncts because adjuncts
attached at coordination level can be assumed to be interpreted at the same
level in each conjunct. In this case, however, simply attaching the
locative adjunct at coordination level would give an incorrect
interpretation (at the levels of reported and injured), and
*RNR*-attach is necessary to achieve the correct interpretation (at the
levels of killed and injured).
(S (S (NP-SBJ-3 (QP At least 270)
people)
(VP were
(VP reported
(S (NP-SBJ-1 *-3)
(VP-2 killed
(NP *-1)
(PP-LOC *RNR*-5))))))
and
(S (NP-SBJ=3-6 1,400)
(VP=2 injured
(NP *-6)
(PP-LOC *RNR*-5)))
(PP-LOC-5 in
(NP (NP the rush-hour tremor)
(SBAR (WHNP-4 that)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-4)
(VP caused
(NP (NP billions)
(PP of
(NP (NP dollars)
(PP of
(NP damage)))))))))))
- Trace of wh-movement and topicalization.
- Multi-word VPs → single adjunct trace at coordination level.
The traces of shared adjuncts are put at the level of coordination, in the
extraction site (i.e., just where an unmoved adjunct would be attached, see
the preceding section, starting on
page ?? on the attachment
of shared adjuncts).
(S (NP-SBJ the bidding group)
(VP has n't
(VP had
(NP (NP time)
(SBAR (WHADVP-2 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP (VP to
(VP develop
(NP its latest idea)
(ADVP-MNR fully)))
or
(VP to
(VP discuss
(NP it)
(PP-CLR with
(NP banks))))
(ADVP-TMP *T*-2))))))))
(S (ADVP-TMP-TPC-1 Initially)
,
(NP-SBJ the company)
(VP said
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ-2 it)
(VP will
(VP (VP close
(NP its lending division))
, and
(VP stop
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP originating
(NP new leases)
(PP-LOC at
(NP its lease subsidiary)))))
(ADVP-TMP *T*-1)))))))
Multiple traces are not used if they would all be attached at the
same level (here, child of the first VP) in every VP conjunct. Rather, a
single trace is attached at the lowest available coordination level.
Similarly, if a trace is shared by two Ss, it goes at coordination level.
(NP (NP a day)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 0)
(S (S (NP-SBJ some United Airlines employees)
(VP wanted
(S (NP-SBJ-2 Mr. Wolf)
(VP fired
(NP *-2)))))
and
(S (NP-SBJ takeover stock speculators)
(VP wanted
(NP his scalp)))
(ADVP-TMP *T*-1))))
- Interpretation in different clauses → multiple adjunct
traces.
Unlike with overt adjuncts in this structure (see
page ??),
*RNR*-attach is never used with traces.
Multiple traces of adjunct wh-movement and topicalization are used
only in the case that the adjunct is extracted from different clause levels
(one matrix and one subordinate, for example), as this is the only
structure where attaching the trace at coordination level will yield an
incorrect interpretation. (See
page ??.)
(NP (NP the town)
(SBAR (WHADVP-4 where)
(S (NP-SBJ the president)
(VP (VP spoke
(ADVP-LOC *T*-4))
and
(VP declared
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ-3 the building)
(VP should
(VP be
(VP built
(NP *-3)
(ADVP-LOC *T*-4)))))))))))
See the Complements and Postmodifiers section of section 11 [Modification of NP] for more
details on the bracketing of adjuncts and postmodifiers in NP.
Shared adjuncts are adjoined to the highest appropriate NP. *RNR*-attach
(Right Node Raising) should not be used with adjuncts, although it is used
with shared complements of nouns.
(NP (NP a book and poster)
(PP about
(NP toads)))
(NP (NP (NP a book)
and
(NP a poster))
(PP about
(NP reptiles)))
(NP (NP princes and dukes)
(PP of
(NP Luxemborg)))
(NP (NP (NP handsome princes)
and
(NP dignified dukes))
(PP of
(Luxemborg)))
(NP (NP the arrest and charging)
(PP of
(NP the two men)))
(NP-PRD (NP the
(NX (NX crown prince)
and
(NX hereditary grand duke)))
(PP of
(NP Luxembourg)))
8.3.3 Comparative adjectives and adverbs
The than/that/as-clause in comparative structures is always
adjoined to the comparative phrase. Thus, this type of postmodifier will
be adjoined to comparative adjectives and adverbs. (See section 22 [Comparatives] for
details on the bracketing of comparative structures.)
(ADJP (ADJP as long and complicated)
(PP as
(NP that paper)))
(ADJP (ADJP (ADJP as long)
and
(ADJP as complicated))
(PP as
(NP that paper)))
(ADVP (ADVP (ADVP as quickly)
and
(ADVP as efficiently))
(PP as
(ADJP possible)))
(ADJP (ADJP (ADJP less)
(PP than
(NP *RNR*-1)))
or
(ADJP equal
(PP to
(NP *RNR*-1)))
(NP-1 the maximum link speed))
8.4 Coordination of adjectival and nominal NP modifiers
The structure of coordinated NP premodifiers is independent of the
coordination of NP heads. Thus the rules below apply equally to NPs that
have a single head or multiple, coordinated heads.
8.4.1 Adjectives
Conjoined single-word adjectives are labeled
ADJP, with the internal structure left flat.
(NP (ADJP far-away and expensive)
stores)
(NP (ADJP ripe and nutritious)
apples and bananas)
(NP the
(ADJP ripe and nutritious)
apples and bananas)
(NP (NP two factors)
,
(ADJP economic and political))
Conjoined multi-word adjectives are labeled ADJP, with the internal
structure shown, even when just one of the conjuncts is multi-word.
(NP (ADJP (ADJP round)
and
(ADJP bright blue))
balls)
(NP (ADJP (ADJP very large)
and
(ADJP extremely poisonous))
apples)
(NP (NP a government)
(ADJP (ADJP (ADJP less predictable)
(PP than
(NP Mr. Gandhi 's)))
, and
(ADJP (ADVP possibly)
more restrictive)))
When it is not clear whether the modifier of the adjective goes with just
the first modifier or with both, it is assumed to be shared and the
structure is left flat. This parallels the default treatment of other
shared elements when their scope is not clear from context:
(NP (ADJP very
large and poisonous)
apples)
Compare with the case where the scope of modification is shown:
(NP (ADJP (ADJP oddly smelling)
and
(ADJP poisonous))
apples)
When a comma is used instead of a lexical conjunction, only multi-word
adjectives are bracketed (unlike conjunction with and, or,
etc., where both conjuncts are labeled).
(NP true , entertaining stories)
(NP smoother
,
(ADJP less volatile)
executions)
No internal structure is shown for conjoined nominal premodifiers.
(NP installation and maintenance procedures)
(NP the installation and maintenance procedures)
(NP both installation and maintenance procedures)
(NP the human and animal health-products segment)
(NP the
TV installation
and
antennae maintenance
procedures)
Even in the case where a nominal premodifier is adjectivally modified, the
entire structure is left flat.
(NP municipal bond
and
mutual fund
orders)
However, nominal postmodifiers get the same internal structure as
other noun phrases.
(NP (NP Mickey Mouse)
,
(NP editor and publisher))
(NP (NP Micky Mouse)
,
(NP (NP treasurer)
and
(NP chief financial officer)))
8.4.3 Coordinated adjectival and nominal modifiers
When an adjective is coordinated with a nominal modifier, UCP (“unlike
coordinated phrase”) is used. (See section 7 [Coordination] for more information about
UCP.)
No internal structure should be shown for a coordinated single-word noun
and adjective premodifier:
(NP the
(UCP federal and state)
rulings and procedures)
(NP (NP sales)
(PP-LOC at
(NP (UCP franchisee
(CONJP as
well
as)
company-owned)
stores)))
Multi-word conjuncts may show internal structure.
(NP (ADJP low-cost producing)
(UCP (NP Pacific Rim)
and
(ADJP Latin American))
countries)
8.5 Shared NP heads
NPs like 20 thin and 10 fat dogs, in which unrelated modifiers are
apparently conjoined, are analyzed as separate noun phrases sharing a
common head. The common head is labeled NX, attached at conjunction
level, and *RNR*-attached to each NP:
(NP (NP 20 thin
(NX *RNR*-1))
and
(NP 10 fat
(NX *RNR*-1))
(NX-1 dogs))
Note that the shared NX is not limited to one word, and could in principle
contain head coordination, although there are no actual examples of this in
the WSJ corpus.
(NP (NP the Japanese
(NX *RNR*-1))
and
(NP the U.S.
(NX *RNR*-1))
(NX-1 consumer markets))
This analysis extends in a natural (if somewhat ugly) way to unrelated
modifiers that share premodifiers (such as a determiner).
(NP our
(NX (NX 20 thin
(NX *RNR*-1))
and
(NX 10 fat
(NX *RNR*-1))
(NX-1 dogs)))
(NP-SBJ (NP Gannett 's)
(NX (NX 83 daily
(NX *RNR*-1))
and
(NX 35 non-daily
(NX *RNR*-1))
(NX-1 newspapers)))
(NP-SBJ (NP Gannett 's)
(NX (NX New York daily
(NX *RNR*-1))
and
(NX Pennsylvania non-daily
(NX *RNR*-1))
(NX-1 newspapers)))
This *RNR*-attached NX analysis has also occasionally been used when a
simpler UCP analysis would have sufficed:
(NP (NP municipal bond
(NX *RNR*-2))
,
(NP mutual fund
(NX *RNR*-2))
and
(NP other
(NX *RNR*-2))
(NX-2 orders))
perhaps should be:
(NP (UCP municipal bond
,
mutual fund
and
other)
orders)
In fact, the NX analysis is not limited to simple conjunction of NPs. If
the annotator has a strong intuition of Right Node Raising, an NX can be
shared across a fairly complex structure:
(PP-LOC (PP in
(NP normal
(NX *RNR*-1)))
(CONJP as well as)
(PP in
(NP cancerous
(NX *RNR*-1)))
(NX-1 cells))
Although the same construction is more likely to be bracketed more simply:
(PP-LOC (PP in
(NP normal))
(CONJP as well as)
(PP in
(NP cancerous cells)))
9 WH-phrases
This section is concerned with the bracketing of wh-phrases. For
information about null elements associated with wh-phrases, see
section 4 [Null Elements].
9.1 Bracketing wh-phrases in direct and indirect questions
9.1.1 Bracket labels
WHNP WHADVP WHADJP WHPP
-
WHNP.
-
General.
When what, who, and which stand alone, they are labeled WHNP.
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 What/Who/Which)
(SQ are
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP thinking
(PP-CLR about
(NP *T*-1)))))
?)
When how many stands alone, it too is labeled WHNP. However,
when it modifies a nominal head, it is bracketed WHADJP as noted in (c) below.
(SBARQ (WHNP-9 How many)
(S do
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP want
(NP *T*-9)))
?)
- With modifiers.
Single-word wh-premodifiers (e.g., which in which
dress) are left unlabeled. The modifier and head are dominated by WHNP.
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 What/Whose/Which dress)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP select
(NP *T*-1)))
?)
Multi-word wh-premodifiers (e.g., how many in how many
secrets) are bracketed according to the principle,
Wh-ness percolates up.
That is, the wh-word (here, how) and all higher-level nodes
are bracketed with the appropriate wh-label. In most cases of
premodification, the principle is moot; because we usually don't label the
heads of NPs, there's no question as to whether they receive a wh-label.
(SBARQ (WHNP-8 (WHADJP how many)
secrets)
(SQ do
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP know
(NP *T*-8))))
(SBARQ (WHNP-7 (WHADJP How hot)
a room)
(S can
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP tolerate
(NP *T*-7)))
?)
The principle of upward percolation of wh-ness is more important to
the bracketing of post-modified wh-phrases. The the wh-phrase what, whose, or which and all higher nodes are
labeled WH[x], but nodes that do not dominate the wh-phrase are not
labeled WH[x]. In the below examples, in the closet is labeled PP,
not WHPP.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP do
not
(VP know
(SBAR (WHNP-3 (WHNP what)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the closet)))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP am
(ADJP-PRD afraid
(PP of
(NP *T*-3))))))))
.)
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 (WHNP What/Whose/Which story)
(PP about
(NP tribbles)))
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP read
(NP *T*-1)))
?)
- WHADVP.
- General.
When when, why, where, and how stand alone they are simply
labeled WHADVP. The wh-trace receives the appropriate function
tag.
(S (SBAR-TMP (WHADVP-2 When)
(S (NP-SBJ the clock)
(VP strikes
(NP three)
(ADVP-TMP *T*-2))))
,
(NP-SBJ the children)
(VP leave)
.)
(SBARQ (WHADVP-54 Why)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP jump
(PP-DIR off
(NP the cliff))
(ADVP-PRP *T*-54)))
?)
(SBARQ (WHADVP-1 Where)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP meet
(NP them)
(ADVP-LOC *T*-1)))
?)
(SBARQ (WHADVP-42 How)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP fix
(NP the car)
(ADVP-MNR *T*-42)))
?)
- With modifiers.
Single-word wh-premodifiers in WHADVPs (here, how) are left
unlabeled, just as nominal single-word wh-premodifiers are.
(SBARQ (WHADVP-2 How fast)
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ the plants)
(VP grow
(ADVP *T*-2)))
?)
As with post-modified WHNPs, wh-ness percolates upward in
postmodified WHADVPs. In this case, the prepositional phrase is labeled
PP-LOC rather than WHPP-LOC.
(SBARQ (WHADVP-4 (WHADVP Where)
(PP-LOC in
(NP Minneapolis)))
(SQ do
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP live
(ADVP-LOC *T*-4)))
?)
- WHADJP
The WHADJP label is used to bracket phrases consisting of a wh-adverb modifier and an adjectival head.
(SBARQ (WHADJP-54 How cold)
(SQ is
(NP-SBJ it)
(ADJP-PRD *T*-54)
(ADVP-LOC outside))
?)
- WHPP
(SBARQ (WHPP-42 On
(WHNP what))
(SQ did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP sit
(PP-LOC-CLR *T*-42)))
?)
Note that premodified WHNP objects of WHPP are bracketed in accordance
with the bracketing of all other premodified WHNPs.
(SBARQ (WHPP-6 In
(WHNP which chair))
(S did
(NP-SBJ-5 you)
(VP wish
(S (NP-SBJ *-5)
(VP to
(VP sit
(PP-LOC *T*-6))))))
?)
(SBARQ (WHPP-2 In
(WHNP (WHADJP how many)
chairs))
(S did
(NP-SBJ you)
(VP sit
(PP *T*-2)))
?)
9.1.2 Coordination of wh-phrases
-
Like wh-phrases are, as usual, coordinated as low as possible.
( (NP-SBJ I)
(VP wonder
(SBAR (WHNP-3 what or who)
(S (NP-SBJ that)
(VP is
(NP-PRD *T*-3)))))
.)
There is no policy indicating how to bracket the trace of coordinated
wh-phrases in cases where the conjuncts are associated with different
function tags. Below, the issue is whether the (ADVP *T*) receives a -LOC,
-TMP, or both. In some cases, the trace label contains no function tag, as
in the first example. In others, the trace label contains all the
appropriate function tags, as in the second example.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP forgot
(SBAR (WHADVP-2 where and when)
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP will
(VP eat
(NP lunch)
(ADVP *T*-2))))))
.)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP forgot
(SBAR (WHADVP-2 where and when)
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP will
(VP eat
(NP lunch)
(ADVP-LOC-TMP *T*-2))))))
.)
- Unlike wh-phrases are dominated by UCP.
(S (NP-SBJ land developers)
(VP tell
(NP them)
(SBAR (UCP-1 (WHADVP when)
,
(WHADVP where)
,
and
(WHPP in
(WHNP what manner)))
(S (NP-SBJ the community)
(VP shall
(VP grow
(UCP *T*-1)))))
.))
The problem of how to bracket the wh-trace (noted in the preceding
section on “Like wh-phrases”) pertains here as well.
9.1.3 *ICH*-attaching to wh-phrases
In cases where a postposed constituent is interpreted as an adjunct to a
wh-phrase, it is *ICH*-attached to the wh-phrase. See
section 5 [Pseudo-Attach] for more information about *ICH*-attaching.
(SBAR-NOM (WHNP-2 (WHNP what)
(SBAR *ICH*-5))
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-2)
(VP is
(ADJP-LOC-PRD present)
(SBAR-5 (WHNP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP is
(VP creating
(NP artificial volatility))))))))
9.1.4 Problematic cases
There are a number of tricky cases for which there is no policy. These
occur infrequently in the present corpus. Possible bracketings are listed
for each case.
-
how come; how comes it
The question inversion appears to be tied up in the frozen form “how come”;
hence the problem of SBAR vs SBARQ.
(SBAR[Q] how come
(S[Q] (NP-SBJ you)
(VP bushwhacked
(NP them rustlers))))
- what if
(X (WHNP what)
(SBAR if
(S I told you pigs have wings)))
(SBAR (WHNP what)
if
(S...))
- why (not)
(SBARQ (WHADVP why)
(SQ (NP-SBJ *)
not
(VP grow
(NP some)
(PP (ADVP just)
for
(NP winter blooming)))))
(SBAR (WHADVP why)
not
(S ...))
(SBAR why not
(S...))
- how('s) about
(SBAR how about
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP watering
(NP the plants)))
?)
- seeing (as how)
(SBAR seeing as how
(S (NP-SBJ the flowers)
(VP need
(NP attention))))
9.2 Bracketing wh-phrases in relative clauses
9.2.1 Bracket labels
-
WHNP
-
Single-word WHNP.
(NP (NP answers)
(SBAR (WHNP-6 that/which)
(S (NP-SBJ-3 we)
(VP 'd
(VP like
(S (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP to
(VP have
(NP *T*-6)))))))))
- Premodified WHNP.
(NP (NP the teacher)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 whose scarf)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP admired
(NP *T*-1)))))
- Postmodified WHNP.
In most cases, these cases are bracketed according to the principle “wh-ness percolates upward.” However, since this principle was applied
somewhat inconsistently, deviations as shown in the second example are
likely.
(NP (NP three blind mice)
(SBAR (WHNP-4 (NP none)
(WHPP of
(WHNP which)))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP was
(VP (ADVP very)
charmed
(NP *-1)
(PP by
(NP-LGS *T*-4)))))))
(SBAR (WHNP-107 (WHNP some)
(WHPP of
(WHNP whom)))
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-107)
(VP do n't
(VP have
(NP adequate staffs)))))
- WHADVP
(NP (NP the place)
(SBAR (WHADVP-2 that/where)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP put
(NP the book)
(ADVP-PUT *T*-2)))))
(NP (NP the time)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 when)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP met
(NP you)
(ADVP-TMP *T*-1)))))
Note that the SBARs do not have -LOC or -TMP labels. Only the adverbial
trace receives a function tag.
- WHPP
(NP (NP the place)
(SBAR (WHPP-1 in
(WHNP which))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP matured
(PP-LOC *T*-1)))))
(NP (NP the woman)
(SBAR (WHPP-1 of
(WHNP which))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP am
(ADJP-PRD fond
(PP *T*-1))))))
9.2.2 Null wh-elements/zero relatives
For information about bracketing null wh-elements, see section 4 [Null Elements].
9.2.3 Free (“headless”) relatives
- General. A free or headless relative is defined as any relative clause
that lacks a head. Free (“headless”) relatives are labeled SBAR-NOM.
(PP instead of
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP listening
(PP-CLR to
(SBAR-NOM (WHNP-155 what)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-155)
(VP is
(PP-LOC-PRD in
(NP his soul)))))))))
( (S (SBAR-NOM-SBJ (WHNP-1 What)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP is
(PP-PRD of
(NP (NP (ADJP much more)
importance)
(PP to
(NP the Colombian economy))
(PP than
(NP (NP the supposed
benefits)
(PP of
(NP laundered drug
money)))))))))
(VP is
(NP-PRD (NP higher prices)
(PP for
(NP (NP Colombia 's)
legitimate products))))
.))
- Distinguishing between free relatives and indirect questions.
When the SBAR is a complement of PP or in subject position, it is clearly a
free relative, and thus labeled SBAR-NOM.
When the SBAR is a complement of a VP, it may be interpreted as
either a free relative or a clausal complement.
In the first example (below), the SBAR is bracketed as a clausal complement (in
this case, an indirect question) and does not receive the -NOM tag. The
sentence can be paraphrased as , “I asked, what did he ask?”
In the second example, the clause is bracketed as a free relative and does
receive the -NOM tag. The sentence can be paraphrased as “I asked that
which he asked” or “I asked the same question that he asked.”
-
indirect question interpretation
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP asked
(SBAR (WHNP-1 what)
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP asked
(NP *T*-1)))))
.)
- free-relative interpretation
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP asked
(SBAR-NOM (WHNP-1 what)
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP asked
(NP *T*-1)))))
.)
SBAR complements of verbs such as ask, tell, and know that can
take clausal complements are usually analyzed as clausal complements.
Free-relative interpretations of clausal complements of VP happen
infrequently, and are either due to a bona-fide free-relative
interpretation, or to error.
(NP (NP the first)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP to
(VP tell
(NP him)
(SBAR (WHNP-154 what)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-154)
(VP is
(PP-LOC-PRD in
(NP our minds))))))))))
9.3 Long-distance movement
Instances of “long-distance movement” (i.e., the wh-phrase is
interpreted in a clause that is more deeply embedded than the free
relative clause itself) are bracketed as follows.
-
free relative
( (S The company is upset over
(NP (NP the use)
(PP of
(SBAR-NOM what
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP says
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP are
(NP-PRD its exclusive
trademarks)))))))))
.))
- indirect question
( (S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP forgot
(SBAR (WHNP who)
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP said
(SBAR (WHNP-2 0)
(S (NP-SBJ-1 they)
(VP wanted
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP hire
(NP *T*-2)))))))))))
.))
10 Subordinate Clauses
10.1 Scope of this chapter
Of the various kinds of subordinate clauses, this section is concerned only
with those that are introduced by subordinating conjunctions. See
section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] for information about sentential adjunct clauses, section 15 [Small Clauses]
for small clauses, and section 9 [WH-Phrases] for subordinate clauses introduced by
wh-phrases.
10.2 Definition of subordinating conjunction
The Treebank brackets as subordinating conjunctions those constructs
which introduce finite clauses, past participle clauses, and sentence
fragments. Most subordinate present participle clauses are classified as
nominal gerunds and introduced by prepositions (with a few exceptions, such
as clauses introduced by while). See section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for
more information about the bracketing of present participles.
Note that many words can function both as subordinating conjunctions and
prepositions. A word is considered a subordinating conjunction (heading an
SBAR) when it introduces a sentence, and a preposition (heading a PP) when
it introduces nominals and other complements.
10.3 Distribution of subordinating conjunctions
10.3.1 Sentential/verbal adjunct
(S (SBAR-TMP After
(S (NP-SBJ she)
(VP finished)))
,
(NP-SBJ she)
(VP took
(NP a shower)))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 She)
(VP read
(NP the paper)
(SBAR-TMP while
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP eating
(NP breakfast))))))
10.3.2 Adjunct or complement of noun
(S (NP-SBJ (NP Her muscles)
(SBAR-TMP before
(S (NP-SBJ-1 she)
(VP started
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP lifting
(NP weights)))))))
(VP were
(ADJP-PRD smaller)))
(NP the belief
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ the world)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD round)))))
(NP (NP such a pretty butterfly)
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP smiled
(PP-CLR with (NP delight))))))
When a postmodifying clause is introduced by as, there is usually no
wh-element.
(NP (NP the scenario)
(SBAR as
(S (NP-SBJ-4 *)
(VP depicted
(NP *-4)
(PP by
(NP-LGS the middle-of-the-road group))))))
(S (NP-SBJ The perfect time)
(VP is
(SBAR-PRD after
(S (NP-SBJ she)
(VP finishes)))))
10.3.4 Complement of VP
(S (NP-SBJ Willie)
(VP knew
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP threw
(NP the ball))))))
10.3.5 Object of PP
assuming (that)
excepted (that)
excepting (that)
given (that)
granted (that)
granting (that)
provided (that)
providing (that)
save (that)
seeing (that)
supposing (that)
etc.
(S (PP Given
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ raindrops)
(VP are
(ADJP-PRD blue)))))
,
(NP-SBJ (NP it)
(S *EXP*-2))
(VP does n't
(VP make
(NP sense)
(S-2 to get a blue umbrella)
(S-PRP because they will just blend in))))
(S (NP-SBJ These beliefs)
(VP (ADVP (ADVP so)
(SBAR *ICH*-5))
dominate
(NP (NP our educational establishment)
,
(NP our media)
,
(NP our politicians)
,
and
(NP even
our parents))
(SBAR-5 that
(S (NP-SBJ (NP it)
(S *EXP*-1))
(VP seems
(ADJP almost
blasphemous))
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP challenge
(NP them))))))))
10.4 SBARs in comparative constructions
See section 22 [Comparatives] for information about this subject.
10.5 “Absolute with” constructions
In line with the general policy stated above, present participle clauses
are bracketed S-NOM and dominated by PP and past participle clauses are
bracketed S and dominated by SBAR. See section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for more
information.
(SBAR with
(S (NP-SBJ-3 the flowers)
(VP arranged
(NP *-3)
(PP by
(NP-LGS Penelope)))))
(PP with
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ her eyes)
(VP rolling)))
When with is followed by coordinated NPs/S-NOMs and past participles,
policy is undetermined. The following disparate bracketings are possible.
(S (NP-SBJ the end result)
(VP would
(VP be
(NP-PRD (NP a leaner , meaner corporate America)
,
(PP with
(UCP (NP soaring productivity and profits)
and
(S (NP-SBJ the weaker)
(VP gone
(PP-DIR to
(NP the wall))))))))))
(S (SBAR-ADV With
(S (S (NP-SBJ demand)
(VP growing))
and
(S (NP-SBJ workers)
(PP-PRD in
(NP short supply)))))
,
(NP-SBJ many Japanese manufacturers)
(VP are
(VP spending
(ADVP-MNR heavily)
(PP-CLR on
(NP automation)))))
10.6 Bracketing of subordinating conjunctions
The following words are single-word subordinating
conjunctions and are bracketed SBAR.
after, although, as
because, before
for
if
like
once
since, so
than, though
unless, until
whether, while
(SBAR though
(S the world is no longer flat))
(SBAR though
(FRAG (ADJP flat)))
The following words are bracketed SBAR. No
internal structure is shown.
as if
as though
in case
in order to/that/for
in that
inasmuch as
insofar as
so as
so that
such that
whether or not
(SBAR as if
(S he had walked for miles))
Note that such that is not always a subordinating conjunction:
-
Subordinating conjunction:
(S (NP-SBJ X)
(VP divides
(PP-CLR into Y)
,
(SBAR-ADV such that
(S (NP-SBJ the result)
(VP is
(NP Z))))))
- Not a subordinating conjunction:
(S (NP-SBJ the weather)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD such
(SBAR that
(S you ought to bring your umbrella)))))
Note that or not in whether or not is attached unlabeled in
SBAR whether the S precedes it or follows it.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP don't
(VP know
(SBAR whether or not
(S I should buy this)))))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP don't
(VP know
(SBAR whether
(S I should buy this)
or not))))
The collocation now that is most often bracketed:
(ADVP-TMP now
(SBAR that
(S ...)))
10.6.3 Modified subordinating conjunctions
-
Degree/extent modifiers. These are, for the most part, left
unlabeled. However, in some cases (most often, with especially), they
have been labelled ADVP. Examples of both bracketings are given below.
only
even
just
especially
(SBAR only
because
(S you agree to pay that 500 dollars))
(SBAR (ADVP only)
because
(S you agree to pay that 500 dollars))
- Quantitative modifiers.
The following are equally likely:
(SBAR-TMP (NP-ADV two weeks)
before
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP departed)))
(SBAR-TMP (NP two weeks)
before
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP departed)))
10.7 Correlative the-clauses (the...the...
constructions)
There is no definitive policy for handling these cases. Most analyses
involve the use of SBAR. See section 25 [Correlative the-Clauses] for more on the bracketing of
correlative the-clauses (the...the constructions).
(S (SBAR-ADV (X the sooner)
(S our vans hit the road each morning))
,
(X the easier)
it is for us to fulfill that obligation)
11 Modification of NP
The policies described in this section apply to cases in which the modifier
is not shared by coordinated heads. See section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] for information on
the annotation of both coordinated heads and coordinated modifiers.
11.1 Premodifiers
- Single-word ADJPs are not labeled.
(NP poisonous apple)
- Multi-word ADJPs are labeled ADJP.
(NP (ADJP very poisonous) apple)
(NP (ADJP nearly invalid) license)
(NP (ADJP Holliston , Mass.-based) company)
(NP (ADJP well to do) people)
- Hyphenated adjectives are considered single-word (since they form
single word-tokens in the POS tagging) and are therefore not labeled.
(NP pre-historic apple)
(NP a Massachusetts-based company)
11.1.2 Nominal modifiers
Since it is often impossible to determine the scope of nominal modifiers,
they are not labeled.
(NP fake sales license)
(NP white-water rafting license)
(NP week-end sales license)
(NP furniture sales license)
(NP fake fur sale)
(NP State Secretary inauguration)
(NP New York public officials)
Likewise, titles that precede proper names are not labeled:
(NP club president Helen Parker)
(NP State Secretary James Baker)
Note, however, that nominal modifiers containing PPs are not left flat.
Instead, the PP is fully annotated and the nominal modifier is labeled NAC
(“Not A Constituent”). The NAC structure here does not indicate
complementation, despite appearances to the contrary, and is to be
considered on a par with other cases of post-nominal adjunction. (See
section 11.2.1.)
(NP (NAC sale
(PP of
(NP firecrackers)))
law)
(NP (NAC Secretary
(PP of
(NP State)))
James Baker)
NP premodifiers of words such as ago and before are labeled
NP. See note at the end of
section 5 on
page ??.
The coordination of nominal modifiers is not annotated:
(NP installation
and
(NAC maintenance
(PP of
(NP software)))
procedures)
(NP (NAC installation
(PP of
(NP hardware)))
and
(NAC maintenance
(PP of
(NP software)))
procedures)
(NP (NAC installation & maintenance
(PP of
(NP software)))
procedures)
The possessive marker (usually 's, but sometimes just an apostrophe)
is treated as an individual token – it is separated from the previous word
and part-of-speech tagged POS. (However, possessive pronouns (including
its) are treated as a single token, part-of-speech tagged PP$.)
We indicate what is doing the possessing by annotating the possessor as a
noun phrase, attaching the possessive marker as the last child of the noun
phrase.
(NP (NP my best friend 's)
boyfriend)
A possessive 's phrase is always labeled NP, even if the
possessor is single-word (because the possessive marker is a separate
token).
(NP (NP Sharon 's)
bananas)
Complicated possessive phrases are handled by using the usual rules for
noun phrases, and then attaching the possessive marker as the last child of
the possessing noun phrase. Hence, the possessing NP can be analyzed by
removing the possessive marker and analyzing the remainder in the same way
as for ordinary NPs. (The NAC label, which would be used in the below case
if the possessive marker was not present, should not be used for
possessives.)
(NP (NP (NP First)
(PP of
(NP America))
's)
operating results)
Possessives can be nested:
(NP (NP (NP Reader 's)
Digest Association 's)
new Magazine Publishing Group)
or serial:
(NP (NP China 's)
(NP People 's)
Daily)
Possessive phrases can also sometimes function as nouns:
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP was
(NP-PRD (NP my decision)
, not
(NP anyone else 's))))
(S (NP-SBJ Kim 's)
(VP has
(NP yummy food)))
11.1.4 Dates, places, expressions of amount
Nominal modifiers that are expressions of measure or amount, dates, or
places are treated as adjectives in the simple cases:
(NP a five-dollar book)
(NP a 379-245 vote)
(NP June 30, 1989)
(NP the Jan. 12 meeting)
(NP the New York meeting)
More complex cases may involve the labels QP, NAC, etc. See section
11.3 for more details on the
annotation of complex measure and amount phrases, dates, and places in NP.
(NP a
(ADJP $ 5-a-share *U*)
increase)
(NP a
(ADJP (QP 10 to 15) lb.)
monkey)
(NP a
(ADJP (QP $ 200 million) *U*)
contract)
(NP the
(NAC-TMP Jan. 12, 1984)
meeting)
(NP my
(NAC-LOC New York
,
NY)
birthplace)
11.1.5 Substantive adjectives
Substantive adjectives are labeled NP. An elided head noun is not
represented overtly, but is nonetheless recoverable from the annotation: if
the last child of a base NP is an ADJP or JJx, then that adjective is
either the head of the NP or modifying a null head (depending on one's
theory of substantives).
(NP the rich)
(NP the best)
(NP (NP the best)
(PP of
(NP friends)))
Coordinated substantive adjectives or substantive adjectives that are
modified (i.e., multi-word ADJPs) are labeled ADJP within a headless NP.
Again, an elided head noun is not represented in the annotation.
(NP the (ADJP best and brightest))
(NP the
(ADJP (ADJP very best)
and
(ADJP most talented)))
The internal structure of substantive ADJPs follows the same rules as for
other ADJPs. See section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] for more on coordination and the annotation of
shared modifiers.
11.1.6 Participial and gerund modifiers
When it is not clear whether a modifier is an adjective/participle or a
noun/gerund, annotators refer to the POS tag or the tests listed in
the POS guidelines [Santorini 1990]. (See section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for more details on the annotation of participles
and gerunds acting as heads.)
- Participles.
Participial modifiers are bracketed like adjectival modifiers. Therefore,
the head of an ADJP may be POS-tagged VBN or VBG.
(NP a
flying
plane)
(NP a
(ADJP flying and competing)
plane)
(NP A
(ADJP Swiftly Tilting)
Planet)
(NP a
(ADJP professionally flying & competing)
plane)
(NP (ADJP publicly traded)
portfolios)
- Gerunds.
Gerund modifiers are bracketed like nominal modifiers.
(NP a
baking
guidebook)
(NP a
baking and frosting
guidebook)
(NP a
vegetarian cooking
guidebook)
11.2 Complements and Postmodifiers
- General
- All postmodifiers are Chomsky-adjoined to the phrase they
modify, with the exception of clausal complements of certain nouns (e.g,
deverbal nouns). See section 11.2.2 for
information on distinguishing complements from relative clauses.
(NP (NP the books)
(PP-LOC on
(NP the shelf)))
(NP (NP books)
(PP of
(NP prayer)))
(NP (NP writers)
(ADJP full
(PP of
(NP promise))))
(NP (NP the earthquake)
(NP-TMP yesterday))
(NP (NP women)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP love
(NP potato chips)))))
Exception: Only clausal complements of NP are placed inside NP.
(NP the belief
(SBAR that the world is round))
- One could argue that the structures in the previous section do not
reflect the true structure of noun phrases. For example, the lamp
which is near the window can't be understood really as
(NP (NP the lamp)
(SBAR which is near the window))
because the lamp can't refer successfully; the the means
that the rest of the phrase must pick out a unique lamp, which it doesn't.
So the “right” structure must be something like:
(NP the
(??? lamp
(SBAR which is near the window)))
However, making this kind of distinction on a regular basis would make our
NP structure too complicated to be annotated at reasonable speed, so we
settle for the simplified structures shown in the previous section on
page ??.
This policy also applies to complex cases in which it is more obvious that
our structure doesn't represent the “truth”. For example, (ii) may
better reflect the annotator's understanding of the text (as well as the
correct underlying structure), in that it is the government's
damages which are undetermined, rather than three times the
government's damages as implied by (i). Nonetheless, (i) shows the
correct annotation.
(i) (NP (NP (QP three times)
(NP the government 's)
damages)
,
(SBAR (WHNP-1 which)
(S (NP *T*-1)
(VP are
(ADVP-TMP presently)
(ADJP-PRD undetermined)))))
(ii) (NP (QP three times)
(??? (NP the government 's)
damages
,
(SBAR (WHNP-2 which)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-2)
(VP are
(ADVP-TMP presently)
(ADJP-PRD undetermined))))))
- -TMP and -LOC are the only tags used for NP postmodifiers. For
instance, the NP in a by-phrase should not receive a -LGS
(logical subject) tag.
(NP (NP the destruction)
(PP of
(NP Rome))
(PP by
(NP me)))
Contrast with the case where the by-phrase is a postmodifier of destroy, a verb:
(NP (NP the city)
(VP destroyed
(NP *)
(PP by
(NP-LGS me))))
See section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] and section 2 [Notation] for more details on the
use of the -LGS tag.
- *ICH*-attach is never used to show word order of adjuncts within NPs.
(i) shows the correct treatment of displaced adjuncts within NP; (ii) shows
an incorrect use of *ICH*-attachment with adjuncts.
(i) (NP-SBJ (NP A report)
(NP-TMP late yesterday)
(SBAR (WHNP-2 that)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP liked
(NP *T*-2)))))
(ii) (NP-SBJ (NP A report)
(SBAR *ICH*-3)
(NP-TMP late yesterday)
(SBAR-3 (WHNP-2 that)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP liked
(NP *T*-2)))))
Note that *ICH*-attach is used within nouns only when other postmodifiers
intervene between the head noun and its complement:
(NP (NP the decision
(S *ICH*-1))
(PP-LOC in
(NP upper management))
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP hire
(NP new people)))))
- Reduced relative clauses
-
VP-based.
When the postmodifier contains an overt VP, but no subject and no
subordinating conjunction, all items are attached inside the VP and the VP
is adjoined to the NP. See section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for more details on
the annotation of reduced relative clauses.
(NP (NP women)
(VP loving
(NP women)))
(NP (NP women)
(VP loving
(NP women)
(PP-TMP in
(NP this century))))
Note that passive traces are not coindexed when they occur in reduced
relative clauses. This reflects an understanding of the relationship
between the NP and reduced relative as post-modification rather than
predication. See section 4 [Null Elements] for more information
about the annotation of reduced relative clauses.
(NP (NP meals)
(VP enjoyed
(NP *)
(PP by
(NP-LGS everybody))))
- Non-VP-based.
Annotation of reduced relative clauses that do not contain VPs varies as
follows. When there are several postmodifying elements, possibly all
part of the same relative clause, the preferred approach is to analyze only
one adjunct as part of the relative clause, leaving the rest to be attached
at S or VP level (as appropriate) if possible, as in (a).
(a) (S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP read
(NP (NP the books)
(PP-LOC on the shelf))
(NP-TMP yesterday)))
In the case where such an interpretation is impossible, as in I read
the books on the shelf yesterday quickly and the books on the shelf today
slowly, where yesterday must go inside the NP and cannot be attached
at a higher level, official policy is to use the RRC label, as in (b),
though more likely annotations are as listed in (c), where the postnominal
elements are adjoined non-recursively, and (d), where the postnominal
elements are placed within a single constituent which is then adjoined to
the NP. See section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for more information about non-VP-based reduced
relatives.
(b) (VP read
(NP (NP the books)
(RRC (PP on (NP the shelf))
(NP-TMP yesterday))))
(c) (NP (NP the books)
(PP-LOC on
(NP the shelf))
(NP-TMP yesterday))
(d) (NP (NP 110 titles)
(PP-LOC not
(ADVP-TMP presently)
in
(NP the collection)))
- Non-recursivity of adjuncts.
- Consecutive unrelated adjuncts are non-recursively attached to
the NP they modify. Relative clauses are also non-recursively attached to
the NP containing the head noun.
(NP (NP the woman)
(PP-LOC in the store)
(SBAR who sold me the book))
(NP (NP State University)
(PP of NY)
(PP-LOC at Albany))
(NP (NP the book)
(SBAR I read yesterday)
,
(SBAR which is called Bread and Jam...))
- Exceptions to the the non-recursivity policy in the previous section on
page ??.
- Apposition.
Appositives are recursively adjoined to the NP they modify.
That is, an NP dominates everything before the comma, an NP dominates
everything after the comma, and the two are adjoined under a higher NP,
leaving intact the structure of other postmodifiers of the NP or
appositive.
(NP (NP (NP the book)
(SBAR I read yesterday))
,
(NP a historical novel))
Note that nonrestrictive relative clauses are not considered appositives
and are therefore not recursively adjoined:
(NP (NP the book)
(SBAR I read yesterday)
,
(SBAR which is called Bread and Jam...))
- Postmodifying phrases following the expressions
a share, per share are recursively adjoined.
(Note that this is not the case with similar expressions such as a
day, per person, etc, after which subsequent postmodifying phrases
are nonrecursively adjoined.)
The expressions a share and per share may in some cases be
treated differently: The phrase a share is always adjoined to the
head noun when the NP containing the head noun immediately precedes it, as
in (a).
(a) (NP (NP (NP 5 dollars)
(NP-ADV a share))
(PP in interest))
However, there is some variation in the annotation of postmodifying
per share when it immediately follows the NP containing the head
noun, where the NP may contain recursive adjunction (b) or not (c).
(b) (NP (NP (NP 5 dollars)
(PP per share))
(PP in interest))
(c) (NP (NP 5 dollars)
(PP per share)
(PP in interest))
When there is intervening material, a share/per share is not
recursively adjoined.
(NP (NP 5 dollars)
(PP in interest)
(NP-ADV a share))
- -TTL.
Constituents tagged -TTL (title) are bracketed recursively, regardless of
whether it is the head NP or the appositive that bears the -TTL tag.
(NP (NP (NP the book)
(SBAR I read yesterday))
,
``
(NP-TTL (NP Bread and Jam)
(PP for
(NP Frances)))
'')
(NP ``
(NP-TTL (NP Bread and Jam)
(PP for
(NP Frances)))
''
,
(NP (NP the book)
(SBAR I read yesterday)))
- Reflexive pronouns.
Reflexives are adjoined to the NP they follow.
(NP (NP the boys and girls)
(NP themselves))
(NP (NP he)
(NP himself))
Note that if the reflexive falls elsewhere in the sentence, it is not
pseudo-attached to the noun and is instead labeled NP-ADV.
((S (NP-SBJ He)
(VP did
(NP it)
(NP-ADV himself))
.))
- Alone, else, much, all.
Postmodifiers such as alone, else, and much are
for the most part adjoined to the NP they follow; occasionally no internal
structure is shown. There is also some variation as to whether the word is
labeled ADVP or ADJP. The hoped-for, most common bracketings are shown below.
(NP (NP its real estate)
(ADVP alone))
(NP (NP they)
(ADVP alone))
(NP (NP anything)
(ADJP much))
When a quantifier immediately follows an NP, as in they all, it is
usually bracketed as follows:
(NP (NP they)
(NP all))
The bracketing of else has the most variation; all three
possibilities are likely.
(NP (NP someone)
(ADJP else))
(NP (NP someone)
(ADVP else))
(NP someone else)
Note: Words such as ago and before, which are easily mistaken
for postmodifiers, are instead annotated as the head of a phase that takes
an NP premodifier. See section 11.3 for
more on the annotation of measure and amount phrases.
(ADVP-TMP (NP weeks)
ago)
(ADVP-TMP (NP two weeks)
before)
To distinguish a premodifying NP from the NP complement of the PP, the
premodifier is usually tagged -ADV. However, due to annotator variation,
about a third of such NPs lack the -ADV. It role is recoverable from the
structure, however.
(PP-TMP (NP-ADV two weeks)
before
(NP their departure))
(PP-TMP (NP two weeks)
before
(NP their departure))
Similar variation exists for NP premodifiers of subordinate clauses:
(SBAR-TMP (NP-ADV two weeks)
before
(S they departed))
(SBAR-TMP (NP two weeks)
before
(S they departed))
11.2.2 Clausal complements
- Bracketing.
- Clausal complements of nouns are placed inside NP as follows.
(NP the desire
(S to dance wildly on the roof))
(NP the fact
(SBAR that she wants that particular book))
- The sentential complement of a noun is *ICH*-attached to the head NP
if other postmodifiers intervene.
(NP (NP the decision
(S *ICH*-1))
(PP-LOC in
(NP upper management))
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP hire
(NP new people)))))
- Distinguishing clausal complements from relative clauses.
An S or SBAR is bracketed as a complement when it follows certain nouns
(e.g., deverbal nouns) and/or when it and the associated noun can be
paraphrased as a subject-predicate pair.
- Following is a partial list of words which take complements.
- S
- : desire permit proposal option temptation authority contract
negotiations attempt chance decision power right ability
- SBAR
- : fact idea proposal claim
- Examples of noun/complement → subject/predicate paraphrases:
- S
- : the desire to dance wildly on the roof →
The desire is to dance wildly on the roof
- SBAR
- : the fact that the young girl was courageous →
The fact is that the young girl was courageous.
- An S is analyzed as a relative clause when
- the associated noun is not on the above wordlist, and the S
can't be paraphrased as part of subject/predicate pair, but can be
paraphrased with a wh-phrase.
time to go →
time at which to go
- it has a “gap”, i.e. a place an NP or wh-phrase can be
interpreted.
time at which to go then
- Note that some of the nouns on the above complement-taking list may be
followed by a clause which is paraphrasable with a wh-phrase. This
enables annotators to bracket them as taking a relative clause when context
suggests doing so.
For example, authority usually takes a complement. But in the NP
below, the SBAR is shared by authority and funds, which
does not take a clausal complement. There is, therefore, a wh-trace in the SBAR. Since this trace would be inappropriate in a
complement clause, authority is instead analyzed as taking a
relative clause (paraphrasable as authority under which
to build fallout shelters...).
(NP (NP authority
and
funds)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP build
(NP (NP fallout shelters)
(VP costing
(NP (QP about 200 million)
dollars)))
(ADVP-CLR *T*-1))))))
11.2.3 Reduced relative vs. floating participle
See section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for a lengthy discussion of this distinction.
- Reduced relatives.
Reduced relatives are identified as having the following properties: they
are (i) strongly associated with a noun, (ii) may not be paraphrased with
while or being, and (iii) may be paraphrased with which is or who is.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The progress)
(VP reported
(NP *)
(PP by
(NP-LGS the advisory committee))))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD real)))
- Floating participles.
Floating participles are identified as having the following properties:
they (i) may be moved around the sentence without fundamentally changing
the relationship of the participle to the sentence, (ii) may be paraphrased
with while and being, and (iii) may not be paraphrased with
which is or who is. See section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for
more on the annotation of participles.
(S And
(ADVP-TMP now)
,
(NP-SBJ-1 the woman)
,
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(UCP (ADJP-PRD tired)
and
(VP trembling)))
,
(VP came
(ADVP-DIR here)
(PP-DIR to
(NP the DeKalb County cannery))))
- Variation.
The application of the above tests varies from annotator to annotator and
sometimes different tests will result in different bracketing. For
example, the following are both likely interpretations of the replacing... phrase.
- floating participle
(S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP The Rusk belief)
(PP in
(NP balanced defense)))
,
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP replacing
(NP (NP the Dulles theory)
(PP of
(NP massive retaliation)))))
,
(VP removes
(NP a grave danger)))
- reduced relative
(S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP (NP The Rusk belief)
(PP in
(NP balanced defense)))
,
(VP replacing
(NP (NP the Dulles theory)
(PP of
(NP massive retaliation))))
,)
(VP removes
(NP a grave danger)))
11.3 Measure/Amount Phrases
11.3.1 QP (quantifier phrase)
This label is not used for NPs with quantificational determiners
such as every, some, almost all, etc. Instead, it is used for
multiword numerical expressions that occur within NP (and sometimes
ADJP), where the QP corresponds frequently to some kind of complex
determiner phrase.
The determiners a and an are included in the QP in cases
where the appropriate interpretation is one:
(NP (QP under an) hour)
(NP (QP less than a) year)
When expressions such as from...to... form a complex determiner,
they are labeled QP.
(NP (QP from 10 to 15)
monkeys)
(NP (QP 10 to 15)
monkeys)
(NP (QP 85 to 90 million)
lbs.)
(NP (QP 10 or 11 million)
lbs.)
(NP (QP between 12 and 13)
percent)
(NP (QP between
four and five
hundred thousand)
humans)
Note that there are instances (as described in the next section
11.3.2) where from...to... is
treated as a PP rather than QP, corresponding roughly to cases where the
measure phrase is a post-nominal modifier. Post-nominal modifiers are
distinguished from postposed modifiers such as the following, in
which the from...to... phrase is labeled QP:
(NP (NP gorillas)
(NP (QP from 800 to 1000)
lbs.))
(NP (NP a number)
(PP between
(NP 0 and 6)))
(PP between
(NP (NP 5 dollars)
and
(NP 10 dollars)))
Discontinuous QPs are annotated as follows, where or more is
considered to be part of the QP two or three:
(NP (QP two or three)
inches
(QP or more))
In the following examples, an and 800 are the first part of a
discontinuous QP, but being single words are not labeled as such, in
accordance with general policy.
(PP-TMP in
(NP an hour
(QP or so)))
(NP (NP gorillas)
(NP 800 lbs.
(QP and up)))
In cases where the head noun is missing (understood from context), we place
the labeled QP inside an otherwise empty NP bracket. This applies only to
multi-token numbers and their modifiers or to multi-word non-numeric
“quantifiers.” Examples are common in stock quotes, where “points” is
often implied but rarely written out (see IBM example below).
(NP (QP as many as 10))
- single token numbers with no numeric modifiers (unlabeled)
average circulation of 4,393,237
(NP (NP average circulation)
(PP of
(NP 4,393,237)))
an additional 243,677 of the Class C warrants
(NP (NP an additional 243,677)
(PP of
(NP the Class C warrants)))
- multi-token numbers (and their modifiers):
IBM rose 3 5/8 [points]
(NP-EXT (QP 3 5/8))
8 million [cars] broke down on the freeway last year
(NP (QP 8 million))
This car seats more than 5 [people]
(NP (QP more than 5))
- multi-word non-numeric “quantifiers”:
I paid more than double [the original price]
(NP (QP more than double))
Hey, you ate more than half [the pie]
(NP (QP more than half))
- When a measure such as “pound” is morphologically singular, it is
labeled ADJP rather than NP. This type of ADJP may also contain a QP
expression.
(NP a
(ADJP (QP 10 to 15)
lb.)
monkey)
(NP a
(ADJP $ 5-a-share *U*)
increase)
11.3.2 Ranges and endpoints: from...to...
Where a range is indicated, from...to... is annotated as a complex
(conjoined) PP; where two end points are indicated, from and to are annotated as separate (nonconjoined) PPs. The distinction is
made using the following test: if the order of the PPs in question can be
reversed, then they constitute endpoints, and if not, they constitute a
range. Note that from...to... ranges in determiner position are
called QP, as in the example from 10 to 15 monkeys above, on
page ??. The following
examples contain nouns modified by ranges/endpoints.
- range:
(NP (NP a number)
(PP (PP from
(NP 2))
(PP to
(NP 32))))
(NP (NP excursions)
(PP (PP from
(NP studio))
(PP to
(NP studio))))
- endpoints:
(NP (NP the transition)
(PP from
(NP vinyl records))
(PP to
(NP compact discs)))
- range or endpoints, depending on context:
(PP from
(NP June 15))
(PP to
(NP June 30 , 1989))
When ranges or endpoints modify a verb, the picture is much the same as
with nouns:
- range:
(VP varied
(PP (PP from
(NP 30))
(PP to
(NP 53 mg.))))
- endpoints:
(VP went
(PP-DIR from
(NP Paris))
(PP-DIR to
(NP Dakar)))
(VP went
(PP-DIR from
(NP general))
(PP-DIR to
(NP specific terms)))
11.3.3 Symbols in the text
- Units of measure: *U*
In cases where the head noun of a measure phrase appears as a symbol (such
as $ or %) whose position precludes its being bracketed as the head noun,
*U* is inserted as a place-holder meaning “[unit]” or “[units]”.
(NP (QP $ 200 million) *U*)
(NP a
(ADJP (QP $ 200 million) *U*)
contract)
When the QP is a single word, it is not labeled. Symbols such as $ in the
example below are not counted as “words” in making the single- or
multiple-word distinction:
(NP $ 5 *U*)
In cases where a symbol can be bracketed as the head noun, *U* is
unnecessary:
(NP (QP between 12 to 13) %)
This contrasts with cases where the symbol in question appears with both
numbers, where *U* is required:
(NP (QP between 12 % to 13 %) *U*)
(NP (NP (QP between $ 150 and $ 200) *U*)
(NP-ADV a week))
The above policy works much better with “dollars” and $ than with
“cents”, which appears as a word rather than a symbol throughout the
corpus. As a result, some variation exists in the bracketing of examples
with ranges of cents.
For example, eight cents to 10 cents may be bracketed in the
following ways:
(NP (NP eight cents)
to
(NP 10 cents))
(NP (QP eight cents to 10) cents)
(NP (QP eight cents to 10 cents) *U*)
- Mathematical language
plus and times are bracketed as conjunctions:
(NP (NP (ADJP old and new)
photos)
plus
(NP a written statement))
(S (NP-SBJ three
times
four)
(VP is
(NP-PRD twelve)))
11.3.4 Measure phrases in other syntactic environments
- Without of
Measure phrases without of are bracketed as adjunction structures:
(NP (NP one tablespoon)
(NP quick-cooking tapioca))
- With prepositions and adverbs
Measure phrases that modify prepositions or adverbs are placed inside the
phrase and are labeled NP (and not QP).
(ADVP-TMP (NP two weeks)
ago)
(ADVP-TMP (NP two weeks)
before)
(PP-TMP (NP two weeks)
before
(NP their departure))
(ADVP-TMP (NP an hour
(QP or so))
later)
(VP bury
(NP him)
(PP-LOC (NP six feet)
under
(NP the ground)))
Compare with the case where the measure phrase does not modify the
preposition, but rather the PP modifies the NP.
(PP-TMP during
(NP (NP the two weeks)
(PP-TMP before
(NP their departure))))
- Height and width
(ADJP (NP 3 ft.)
long)
(NP (NP 3 ft.)
(PP in
(NP length)))
(NP (NP (QP from 20 to 60)
feet)
(PP in
(NP height)))
(PP at
(ADJP (ADVP just under)
(ADJP (NP four feet)
tall)
and
(ADJP (NP two feet)
wide)))
Note that just under here is annotated as an adverbial modifier of
the ADJP, much like approximately, etc.
- Scores
Scores are left with flat structure. They are labeled ADVP when they
occur with verbs.
(NP a 379-245 vote)
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP won
(ADVP 97-94)))
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP won
(ADVP 97 to 94)))
(S (NP-SBJ The Knicks)
(VP destroyed
(NP Orlando)
(ADVP 137-82)))
11.3.5 Multipliers: times, half as much, etc.
Expressions of amount such as times, half as much, etc. are labeled
QP when they can be analyzed as complex determiners.
(NP (NP (QP three times)
(NP the government 's)
damages)
,
(SBAR (WHNP-1 which)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP are
(ADVP-TMP presently)
(ADJP-PRD undetermined)))))
(S (NP-SBJ BLAH)
(VP (VP occupies
(NP (NP (QP half as much)
floor space)
(PP as
(NP older systems))))
but
(VP can
(VP store
(NP (QP five times as much)
data)))))
(VP bought
(NP (QP more than double)
that amount))
(NP (NP (QP nine times as many)
frogs)
(PP as
(NP toads)))
When similar expressions modify a verb, they are labeled ADVP rather than
QP.
(VP (ADVP more than)
double
(NP its purchases))
11.3.6 An alphabetized Bestiary of treatments of measure and
quantifier phrases
(American Heritage Dictionary (1991): “A medieval collection of
allegorical fables about the habits and traits of animals, each fable
followed by an interpretation of its moral significance”)
- about
(NP (QP about 1000)
people)
- all but
(NP (QP all but 4)
states)
(When all but modifies a verb, in the sense of “did everything
except”, it is annotated as a flat ADVP.)
- and up
(NP (NP gorillas)
(NP 800 lbs.
(QP and up)))
- around
(NP (QP around 1000)
people)
- as many as
(NP (QP as many as 15)
names)
(NP (NP (QP as many as five million))
(PP of
(NP its common shares)))
- as much as
(NP (NP (QP as much as 15) %)
(PP of
(NP Jaguar shares)))
There may be occasional irregularities in the treatment of as much
as, where it appears with the bracketing shown below, which is
consistent with the usual structure for comparatives but inconsistent with
just about everything else:
(NP (NP as much)
(PP as
(NP 15 %)))
(PP of
(NP Jaguar shares)))
- at least
(NP (QP at least 5)
people)
- from X on...
(PP (PP from
(NP there))
(ADVP on))
(VP begins
(PP (PP from
(NP number 100))
(ADVP on)))
- just under
Note that just under here is annotated as an adverbial modifier of the
ADJP, much like approximately, etc.
(PP at
(ADJP (ADVP just under)
(ADJP (NP four feet)
tall)
and
(ADJP (NP two feet)
wide)))
- more than
(NP (QP more than one)
person)
(NP (QP more than one)
chimpanzee)
(NP (QP more than three in five))
(NP (QP 1, 2, 3, 4, and more than 4)
orangutans)
(NP (NP a value)
(NP (QP no more than 8)
characters))
(NP (NP (ADJP (NP (QP 15 % to 30 %) *U*)
more)
output)
(PP than
(NP the current crop)))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP want
(NP (NP more)
(PP than
(NP money)))))
- nearly
(NP (QP nearly 1000)
people)
- only
(NP (QP only 1000)
people)
- out of
(NP (NP (QP three out of five)
skilled workers)
and
(NP (QP one out of five)
technicians))
- over
(NP (QP over 1000)
people)
- through
(NP (NP a number)
(PP (PP from
(NP 0))
(PP through
(NP 6))))
As a general rule, when through is not in construction with another
preposition and occurs between two like categories, such as NPs, it is
annotated as a conjunction:
(NP numbers
4 through 9)
(NP (NP the file mode number)
(PRN *LRB*
(NP 0 through 6)
*RRB*))
- under
(NP (QP under 1000)
people)
- up to
(NP (QP up to 1024)
bites)
(NP (NP (QP up to $ 15,000) *U*)
(NP-ADV a month))
- upwards of
(NP (QP upwards of 1000)
people)
11.4 Dates and places
The annotations of dates and places are parallel in many respects.
Dates are labeled NP when they are not adjectival modifiers of some other
NP. They may or may not receive the adverbial -TMP tag depending on their
function in the sentence. The internal structure of the date NP is left
flat.
(NP June 30, 1989)
(NP (NP the meeting)
(PP-TMP on
(NP March 8, 1924)))
(NP (NP (NP Bill 's)
birthday)
,
(NP-TMP April 12, 2001))
Dates that are adjectival modifiers inside an NP are bracketed in one of
two ways. If they contain a comma or the, they are labeled NAC
(“Not A Constituent”) and given the -TMP tag. Internal structure of NAC
is not shown:
(NP the
(NAC-TMP Jan. 12, 1984)
meeting)
(NP the
(NAC-TMP Friday the 13th)
stock plunge)
Otherwise, they are left flat:
(NP the Jan. 12 meeting)
Place-phrases are labeled NP when they are not adjectivally modifying some
other NP. They may or may not receive the adverbial -LOC tag depending on
their function in the sentence. The internal structure of the place NP is
annotated with adjoined structure.
(NP (NP IBM)
,
(NP-LOC (NP Akron)
,
(NP OH)))
(NP (NP IBM)
,
(VP based
(NP *)
(PP-LOC-CLR in
(NP (NP Akron)
,
(NP OH))))
,)
(NP (NP the meeting)
(PP-LOC in
(NP (NP New York)
,
(NP NY))))
Places-phrases that modify NPs are bracketed in one of two ways. If they
contain a comma or are otherwise “complex”, they are labeled NAC (“Not A
Constituent”) and given the -LOC tag. The internal structure of NAC is
not shown.
(NP the
(NAC-LOC New York
,
NY
,)
meeting)
(NP (NP Bill 's)
(NAC-LOC Newark
,
NJ)
birthplace)
(NP my
(NAC-LOC New York
,
NY)
birthplace)
Otherwise, they are left flat:
(NP the New York meeting)
11.5 Proper nouns
Proper nouns are bracketed in the same way as common nouns. There are no
special rules concerning them.
(NP Free Press financial statements)
(NP the Free Press)
(NP Knight-Ridder officials)
(NP Xerox marketing strategies)
(NP the
(NX (NX Free Press)
and
(NX New York Public Library)))
Since nominal modifiers of nouns are usually left flat, proper noun
modifiers should also be left flat.
(NP the Free Press and New York Public Library scandal)
12 Titles
12.1 Whole constituent as title
Only titles of books, movies, songs, and names of other created works are
labeled -TTL. (Note that -TTL implies -NOM, so no constituent need be
tagged both -TTL and -NOM.)
(S ``
(NP-TTL-SBJ (NP Bedtime)
(PP for
(NP Frances)))
''
(VP is
(NP-PRD my favorite book)))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP like
(S-TTL (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Driving
(NP Miss Daisy)))))
(S (SBAR-TTL-SBJ (WHADVP-2 When)
(S (NP-SBJ Harry)
(VP Met
(NP Sally)
(ADVP-TMP *T*-2))))
(VP was
(NP-PRD a good movie)))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP am
(PP-PRD in
(NP (NP awe)
(PP of
(S-TTL (NP-SBJ The Empire)
(VP Strikes
(ADVP-CLR Back))))))))
(NP ``
(PP-TTL In
(NP (NP the Heat)
(PP of
(NP the Night))))
,
''
(NP the NBC series...))
Names of institutions, games, and companies should not be labeled -TTL.
(PP according
(PP to
(NP (NP the Center)
(PP for
(NP (NP Continuing Study)
(PP of
(NP the California Economy)))))))
The label at the level of coordination involving items with -TTL is NP,
without an additional -TTL.
(NP (NP-TTL Crime and Punishment)
,
(S-TTL (NP-SBJ One)
(VP Flew
(PP-DIR Over
(NP (NP the Cuckoo 's)
Nest))))
and
(NP-TTL (NP The House)
(PP-LOC at
(NP Pooh Corner))))
12.2 Premodified titles
When a title that would otherwise constitute a full NP is preceded by a
modifier or determiner, it is labeled NX to create a placeholder for the
-TTL tag.
(NP the uptempo
``
(NX-TTL Sky)
'')
(NP (NP Saint-Saens 's)
``
(NX-TTL The Swan)
'')
(NP (NP Steinbeck 's)
``
(NX-TTL (NX The Grapes)
(PP of
(NP Wrath))))
However, some variation exists with postmodified NXs, especially with
NX-TTL. Some such examples in the corpus are bracketed as follows:
(NP (NP Steinbeck 's)
``
(NX-TTL (NP The Grapes)
(PP of
(NP Wrath))))
12.3 Titles as premodifiers
A complex constituent acting as a nominal modifier may be annotated with
full structure and tagged -TTL.
(NP (NP the late Martin Luther King 's)
famous ``
(S-TTL (NP-SBJ I)
(VP Have
(NP a Dream)))
'' speech)
(NP the premiere
``
(PP-TTL In
(NP the Dumpster))
''
column)
However, constituents that might ordinarily be called NP present more of a
problem, since noun modifiers are usually not annotated. The most common
strategies are to leave the modifier flat (if simple) or to use NAC-TTL.
(NP The `` Thin Man '' series)
(NP the old Warner Bros. `` Road Runner '' cartoons)
(NP a
(NAC-TTL `` My Favorite Bureaucrat '')
plaque)
(NP the Oct. 20 ``
(NAC-TTL Corporate Elite)
'' issue)
(NP-SBJ The Wall Street Journal ``
(NAC-TTL American Way
(PP of
(NP Buying)))
'' Survey)
(NP a ``
(NAC-TTL (NP Points)
(PP of
(NP Light)))
'' foundation)
(NP (NP the auto company 's)
``
(NAC-TTL Cars
(SBAR (WHNP-1 That)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP Make
(NP Sense)))))
''
campaign)
13 Gerunds and Participles
13.1 General remarks
13.1.1 Distributional distinction
It was decided that a theory-based distinction between nominal -ing
clauses (gerunds) and other present participles would be too difficult to
make consistently across annotators and throughout the corpus. Therefore,
the distinction made in Treebank bracketing is a purely distributional one:
-ing clauses are labeled S-NOM in subject position and as the object
of a preposition, VP as the complement of be, S as the complement of
other verbs, and S-ADV (or other appropriate adverbial tag) when modifying
the matrix VP or sentence.
Since -ing clauses labeled S-NOM, S, and S-ADV/etc. are at least
partly sentential in nature, like all other sentences they have subjects,
either overt subjects or null * subjects when there is no overt subject
present. They may also have VP-level complements and/or modifiers. The
annotation of present and past participles is such that predicate-argument
structure can be extracted from them as with ordinary sentences.
Past participles are labeled S (never S-NOM), with coindexing of the
subject and adverbial function tags as appropriate.
(For the sake of convenience, the term “gerund” is used below to refer
loosely to -ing clauses in general.)
13.1.2 Function tags
-ing clauses labeled S may receive the following tags: S-NOM-SBJ in
subject position; S-NOM after prepositions; S after verbs and subordinating
conjunctions; S-ADV (or -TMP, -LOC, -PRP, etc.) for adverbial functions.
13.1.3 Coindexation of null subjects
If there is no overt subject of the -ing clause, a null subject is
present in the annotation: (NP-SBJ *). The null subject of an -ing
clause is coindexed to another NP in the sentence if a coindexed
interpretation is available. Coindexation proceeds as usual, according to
pragmatic coreference as well as syntactic binding and control, and
independent of the S-NOM/S distinction. However, null subjects of gerund
complements of PP modifiers of NPs are coindexed only if there is a
particularly strong coindexed interpretation. See section 4 [Null Elements] for
more on the coindexation of null elements.
13.2 Present progressive
Any -ing form after auxiliary be is labeled VP and
annotated as a complement. See section 13.3 for the
annotation of present participles following other verbs.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP am
(VP baking
(NP cookies))))
13.3 Present participles
Overt subjects, whether possessive or not, are bracketed as the subject of
the -ing clause if the clause is labeled S. (If the clause is a
gerund labeled S-NOM, the possessive is treated like any other possessive
in NP.)
- Subject of sentence
(S (SBAR-PRP Because
(S (NP-SBJ-6 he)
(VP should
(VP have
(VP been
(VP disqualified
(NP *-6)))))))
,
(S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ his)
(VP playing
(ADVP at all)))
(VP stinks))
- -ing clause following verb
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP do
n't
(VP mind
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP washing
(NP the car))))))
For the most part, there is not a theory-based distinction between nominal
-ing clauses and other present participles, but rather a
distributional one (see section
13.1.1
for the distributional distinction that is made). This section addresses
the way in which S-NOM and S are used.
The S-NOM vs. S distinction for -ing clauses is made according to
the following distributional criteria:
- S-NOM.
-
-ing clauses are labeled S-NOM when they occur in the following
positions:
- as subjects of S (labeled S-NOM-SBJ)
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Baking
(NP pies)))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD fun)))
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Walking
(ADVP-MNR quickly)))
(VP is
(NP-PRD good exercise)))
(S (SBAR-PRP Because
(S (NP-SBJ-6 he)
(VP should
(VP have
(VP been
(VP disqualified
(NP *-6)))))))
,
(S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ his)
(VP playing
(ADVP at all)))
(VP stinks))
- as objects of prepositions (labeled S-NOM).
Note that “preposition” here means any preposition that takes an NP on at
least one of its uses. So of, by, after, before, with, as, in,
etc. all head PPs when followed by an -ing clause, but while,
if and other necessarily sentential subordinators are always SBAR.
Note that all -ing clause objects of PP are S-NOM.
(S (NP-MNR That way)
(NP-SBJ-7 investors)
(VP can
(ADVP essentially)
(VP buy
(NP the funds)
(PP without
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-7)
(VP paying
(NP the premium)))))))
If an -ing clause has a null * subject, and there is a pragmatic
coindexed interpretation, the subject is coindexed.
Note that there is generally coindexation when the PP is an adjoined
postmodifier of NP only if there is a particularly strong coindexed
interpretation.
(S (NP-SBJ the company)
(VP has
(NP (NP no intention)
(PP of
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP tapping
(NP its short-term bank lines)))))
(PP-TMP for
(NP (NP a good part)
(PP of
(NP 1990))))))
Some examples:
- about
(NP (NP no squeamishness)
(PP about
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP admitting
(NP this)))))
- after
(S (PP-TMP After
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP winning
(NP the race))))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 she)
(VP ran
(NP a victory lap)))
- as
(S (ADVP-TMP Often)
(NP-SBJ the displeased parties)
(VP interpreted
(NP our decision)
(PP-CLR as
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP implying
(NP (NP favoritism)
(PP toward
(NP the other))))))))
- at
(S (NP-SBJ-6 The government)
(VP aimed
(PP-CLR at
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-6)
(VP stimulating
(NP (NP a faster rate)
(PP of
(NP (NP economic growth)
(PP of
(NP the country))))))))))
- before
(S (PP-TMP Before
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP leaving
(PP-CLR for
(NP school)))))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 *)
(VP eat
(NP a good breakfast)))
- by
(S (NP-SBJ-1 He)
(VP inherited
(NP a fortune)
(PP-MNR by
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-1)
(ADVP-MNR brutally)
(VP murdering
(NP his brother))))))
- for
(SINV (ADVP-LOC-PRD-TPC-1 Here)
(VP would
(VP be
(ADVP-LOC-PRD *T*-1)))
(NP-SBJ (NP a powerful force)
(PP for
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP raising
(NP business activity))))))
- from
(S (NP-SBJ The police)
(VP kept
(NP-1 him)
(PP-CLR from
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-1)
(ADVP actually)
(VP collecting
(NP the money))))))
- in
(S (NP-SBJ This)
(VP results
(PP-CLR in
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ-1 a separate record)
(VP being
(VP made
(NP *-1)))))))
- of
(S (NP-SBJ-6 I)
(VP am
(ADJP-PRD tired
(PP of
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-6)
(VP writing
(NP lists)))))))
- since
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP have
(VP worked
(NP several odd jobs)
(PP-TMP since
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP leaving
(NP school)))))))
- while
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The committee)
(VP continued
(NP its meeting)
(SBAR-TMP while
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP eating
(NP lunch))))))
- with (in absolute with-constructions)
(S (PP With
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ interest rates)
(VP rising)))
,
(NP-SBJ the market)
(VP is
(VP moving
(ADVP-MNR slowly))))
Note that with is bracketed as SBAR if it is not followed by
an S-NOM (present participle).
(SBAR-ADV with
(S (NP-SBJ-1 the new understudy)
(VP hired
(NP *-1))))
(SBAR-ADV with
(S (NP-SBJ his boyfriend)
(ADJP-PRD abroad)))
- as a child of the VP coordinated with other NP objects.
In this case, the -ing clause is labeled S-NOM so that the bracket
label at the level of coordination is NP rather than UCP (see section
13.5 on coordination below).
- S.
-
-ing clauses are labeled S when they occur in the following
positions:
- as children of VP.
Complements are labeled S, while adjuncts receive an appropriate tag:
S-ADV, S-MNR, etc. See section 13.3.3.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP do
n't
(VP mind
(S (NP-SBJ your)
(VP washing
(NP the car))))))
(S (S (SBAR-ADV If
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP promotes
(NP fashion)
(ADVP-MNR too much))))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 the shop)
(VP risks
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP alienating
(NP its old-line customers)))))
;
(S (PP-MNR by
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP emphasizing
``
(NP value))))
,
''
(NP-SBJ-2 it)
(VP risks
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP watering
(PRT down)
(NP its high-minded mystique))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Mrs. Ward)
(VP took
(PRT over)
(PP-TMP in
(NP 1986))
,
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP becoming
(NP (NP (NP the school 's)
seventh principal)
(PP-TMP in
(NP 15 years)))))))
Exception: if the gerund is a child of the VP but is coordinated with other
NP objects, it is labeled S-NOM so that the bracket label at the level of
coordination is NP rather than UCP (see section 13.5
on coordination below).
- after subordinating conjunctions (labeled S, with no adverbial tag)
Note that “subordinating conjunction” here means any subordinator that
can never take an ordinary NP object (e.g., while, when, if, etc.)
Subordinating conjunctions are never followed by S-NOM.
- at S-level in preverbal position (labeled S-ADV/etc.).
The S/S-ADV, etc. distinction is made according to the following
distributional criteria:
- S.
-
An -ing clause is labeled S with no adverbial function tag if it is
the complement of a verb or occurs in a “serial verb” construction.
All -ing complements of verbs other than be (e.g., begin, come, continue, deny, get, go, justify, keep, like, permit, sit,
stand, start, stop, etc.) are bracketed in this way. As usual, the null
subject is coindexed with the matrix subject if there is a coindexed
interpretation.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP like
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP helping
(NP children)))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 he)
(VP (VP broke
(PRT out)
(NP the go codes))
and
(VP tried
(S (NP-SBJ-2 *-1)
(VP to
(VP start
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP transmitting
(NP one)))))))))
Note that this parallels the treatment of infinitival complements of some
of these verbs:
(S (NP-SBJ-2 He)
(VP tried
(S (NP-SBJ-3 *-2)
(VP to
(VP start
(S (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP to
(VP transmit
(NP one)))))))))
- S-ADV.
-
-ing clauses are given adverbial function tags if they behave as
adverbial modifiers of the matrix VP or S.
- The appropriate adverbial tag is used (instead of -ADV) if applicable:
-TMP, -PRP, -LOC, -MNR.
- -CLR is used in some rare cases, listed here:
- spend/waste time/money X-ing
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Digital)
(VP has
(VP spent
(NP (QP almost $ 1 billion) *U*)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP developing
(NP the new technology))))))
- have problems/difficulty/trouble X-ing.
The most recent annotation policy for this construction is represented here
in (a), but some occurrences of this construction may be annotated
according to an older policy, as given in (b). About half of the (a)
analyses include the coindexing shown here.
(a) (S (NP-SBJ-1 everybody)
(VP will
(VP have
(NP (NP a difficult time)
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP reaching
(NP their profit objectives)))))))
(b) (S (NP-SBJ-1 everybody)
(VP will
(VP have
(NP a difficult time)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP reaching
(NP their profit objectives))))))
- -ADV is used if no other adverbial tag applies.
This is especially common with floating participles, including dangling
participles (see section 13.6.2 for more details on floating
participles).
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ God)
(VP willing))
,
(NP-SBJ we)
(VP will
(VP arrive
(PP-LOC at
(NP our destination))
(ADVP-MNR safely))))
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP Having
(ADVP-MNR carefully)
(VP considered
(NP his options))))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 he)
(VP decided
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP take
(NP the job))))))
- All past participles that modify S or VP are labeled S-ADV/etc.
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ-1 *-2)
(VP Given
(NP *-1)
(NP the chance)))
,
(NP-SBJ-2 I)
(VP 'd
(VP do
(NP it)
(ADVP-TMP again))))
- Dangling participles. “Floating participles” here includes dangling
participles. They are labeled S-ADV and a null * subject is coindexed as
appropriate.
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP Living
(PP-LOC-CLR in
(NP this house))))
,
(NP-SBJ the noise)
(VP is
(VP driving
(S (NP-SBJ-1 me)
(ADJP-PRD buggy))))
!)
13.3.4 NP vs. S or S-NOM
Single-word nominal -ing clauses are labeled NP; the only exception
is for those with a strong event reading. Gerunds that have an overt
subject or a complement or are modified by an adverbial are bracketed as VP
dominated by S or S-NOM.
- Distinguishing between NP and S or S-NOM
A distinction is made between nouns ending in -ing (labeled NP, with
the head generally POS-tagged NN) and -ing clauses (labeled S or
S-NOM, with the head generally POS-tagged VBG), according to the following
criteria:
- An -ing form is labeled NP if it:
- is a single word (e.g., running), except when it has a
strong event reading (see page
??).
- has a determiner (e.g., some teaching)
- has an of PP object (e.g., teaching of difficult
students)
- has other modifiers that could be modifying an ordinary noun
(e.g., world-class running), as opposed to adverbial
modifiers, which suggest VP.
- Subject position:
(S (NP-SBJ Baking)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD fun)))
- Object position:
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP like
(NP (NP field hockey)
and
(NP swimming))))
- With an NP possessive:
(S (NP-SBJ The men)
(VP were
(ADJP-PRD tired)
(PP from
(NP (NP a night 's)
drinking))))
- With a possessive pronoun:
(S (NP-SBJ We)
(VP kicked
(NP him)
(PP-CLR out
(PP of
(NP the band)))
(SBAR-PRP because
(S (NP-SBJ his playing)
(VP stinks)))))
- With quantifiers:
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP is
(NP-PRD no smoking)
(PP-LOC on
(NP this flight))))
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP will
(VP be
(NP-PRD no talking)
(PP-TMP during
(NP the movie)))))
- With PP postmodifiers:
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP 's
(VP been
(NP-PRD (NP no finding)
(PP by
(NP anybody))
(PP of
(NP (NP any substantive violation)
(PP of
(NP any antitrust laws))))))))
Gerunds with of complements and other adjectival and PP modifiers of
NP are bracketed just like ordinary NPs:
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The taking)
(PP of
(NP Iwo Jima)))
(VP was
(NP-PRD no easy feat)))
contrast with:
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Taking
(NP Iwo Jima)))
(VP was
(NP-PRD no easy feat)))
- With a non-PP postmodifier:
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The dancing)
,
(SBAR (WHNP-7 which)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-7)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD very good))))
,)
(VP began
(PP-TMP at
(NP 8:00))))
- An -ing form with a strong event reading may be labeled S or
S-NOM:
Single-word gerund objects of verbs are normally labeled NP, but in
sentences with strong event readings they may be labeled S or S-NOM. The
null subjects of these gerunds are coindexed if appropriate.
(S (NP-SBJ Apple)
(ADVP allegedly)
(VP discouraged
(NP-2 retailers)
(PP-CLR from
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP discounting)))))
The default is to label as NP, as in (a) below. For example, the
expression I hate lying has both an NP (“I hate it when others
lie”) interpretation, as in (a), and an S interpretation (“I hate to
lie”), as in (b):
(a) “I hate it when others lie”
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP hate
(NP lying)))
(b) “I hate to lie”
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP hate
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP lying))))
- Overt subjects
When the gerund has an overt genitive subject, as in They liked our
singing, it is labeled NP unless it clearly warrants a clausal
interpretation.
- “They liked the way we sang”
(S (NP-SBJ They)
(VP liked
(NP our singing)))
- “They liked the fact that we sang”
(S (NP-SBJ They)
(VP liked
(S (NP-SBJ our)
(VP singing))))
- However, if the subject is not possessive, it is always bracketed S:
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP have
(S (NP-SBJ them)
(VP waiting))))
- Additional complements, modifiers, etc.
In cases where the gerund occurs with complements, modifiers, etc., S or
S-NOM is used only when the structure is unambiguously clausal because the
gerund has a direct object. Otherwise, NP is used.
(S (NP-SBJ They)
(VP liked
(S (NP-SBJ our)
(VP singing
(NP folk songs)))))
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Taking
(NP Iwo Jima)))
(VP was
(NP-PRD no easy feat)))
- Quantifiers.
Any quantifier can be a determiner for an S-NOM -ing clause. If the
gerund is labeled S-NOM, the S-NOM and the (unlabeled) quantifier are both
children of an outer NP label.
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP was
(ADVP certainly)
(NP-PRD no
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP stopping
(NP (NP the tide)
(PP of
(NP emotion))))))))
A gerund may be ambiguous between two interpretations: adjectival noun
phrase modifier (ADJP), and gerund clause (S). For instance, the sentence
Flying planes can be dangerous has at least two interpretations in
isolation, paraphrased below. When it is not clear whether a gerund should
be analyzed as ADJP or S, the default is to analyze it as an
adjective, as in (a).
(a) “Planes which are flying (overhead) can be dangerous”
(S (NP-SBJ Flying planes)
(VP can
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD dangerous))))
(b) “The act of flying planes can be dangerous”
(S (S-NOM-SBJ (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Flying
(NP planes)))
(VP can
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD dangerous))))
13.3.6 Pseudo-prepositions
“Pseudo-prepositions” are words that behave like prepositions but are
historically or apparently verb participles.
Tests for deciding whether a gerund is a “pseudo-preposition”:
- Pied-piping.
Members of the class of “pseudo-prepositions” are admitted if they can
undergo pied piping, and only if the annotator has a strong intuition that
the item in question is behaving as a preposition.
- Lack of verbal content.
These pseudo-prepositions either have no real verbal meaning or have a
meaning other than their ordinary verbal usage.
- POS tagging.
While these pseudo-prepositions are bracketed with a PP label, the
Part of Speech tags associated with these words are still VBG (gerund verb)
or VBN (past participle verb), as described in the POS guidelines [Santorini 1990].
(PP (VBG including)
(NP (DT the)
(NN kitchen)
(NN sink)))
- Real prepositions. Note that while during and pending
may at first glance look like participles, they lack corresponding verbs,
so these should be POS-tagged IN or JJ, according to usage. However,
automatic tagging tools tend to assign a VBG tag, so these may occasionally
be erroneously analyzed as verbs.
- Examples. The following is a partial list of items annotated as
pseudo-prepositions:
according to,
barring,
based on,
combined with,
compared with,
concerning,
depending on,
excluding,
following,
given,
including,
provided (that),
regarding
- according to
(S (PP According
(PP to
(NP (NP sources)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the White House)))))
,
(NP-SBJ the President)
(VP has
(VP been
(ADJP-PRD depressed)
(PP-TMP since
(NP the election)))))
Test: According to whom has the President been depressed?
- barring
(S (PP barring
(NP (NP a recession)
and
(NP (NP a further strengthening)
(PP of
(NP the dollar))
(PP against
(NP foreign currencies)))))
,
(NP-SBJ the industry)
(VP is n't
(VP headed
(PP-CLR for
(NP a prolonged slump)))))
- based on
(VP staggering
(NP rates)
(PP based
(PP on
(NP (NP the size)
(PP of
(NP deposit))))))
- combined with
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The
(NX (NX glut)
and
(NX consequent lower prices)))
,
(PP combined
(PP with
(NP cancer fears)))
,)
(VP was
(NP-PRD (NP a (ADJP very serious) blow)
(PP to
(NP growers)))))
- compared with
(S (NP-SBJ IBM stock)
(VP sold
(PP-CLR at
(NP $1.25))
,
(PP compared
(PP with
(NP (NP $1.32)
(ADVP-TMP (NP a month)
ago))))))
Test: Compared with what did IBM stock sell at $1.25? Note also
that this use of compared with differs from its verbal
meaning.
- concerning (when equivalent to about)
(S (NP-SBJ Imogen)
(VP admitted
(NP (NP a mild curiosity)
(PP concerning
(NP Flavia)))))
Test: Concerning whom did Imogen admit a mild curiosity?
- depending on
(S (PP Depending
(PP on
(NP the organism)))
,
(NP-SBJ there)
(VP may
(VP be
(NP-PRD multiplication)
(PP-LOC in
(NP some food or beverage products)))))
Contrast with its verbal use:
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP Depending
(PP-CLR on
(NP (NP the babysitter 's)
reliability))))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 they)
(VP stayed
(ADVP-LOC-CLR out)
(ADVP-TMP late)))
- excluding
(S (NP-SBJ (NP net sales)
(PP of
(NP (NP all mutual funds)
,
(PP excluding
(NP money market funds))
,)))
(VP fell
(PP-DIR to
(NP (QP $ 1.9 billion) *U*)
(PP-TMP in
(NP September)))
(PP-DIR from
(NP (QP $ 4.2 billion) *U*)
(PP-TMP in
(NP August)))))
- following (when equivalent to after)
(S (NP-SBJ Soviet police)
(VP clashed
(PP-CLR with
(NP demonstrators))
(PP-LOC in
(NP Moscow))
(PP-TMP following
(NP (NP a candlelight vigil)
(PP-LOC around
(NP (NP the KGB 's)
Lubyanka headquarters))))))
Test: Following what did the Soviet police clash with demonstrators?
Contrast with its verbal use:
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP Following
(NP (NP the doctor 's)
directions)))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 she)
(VP took
(NP one pill)
(PP-TMP after
(NP each meal))))
- given (when it means in light of or considering)
(S (PP Given
(NP the present conditions))
,
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP think
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ she)
(VP 's
(VP done
(ADVP-MNR rather well)))))))
Contrast with verbal use:
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ-1 *-2)
(VP Given
(NP *-1)
(NP the chance)))
,
(NP-SBJ-2 I)
(VP 'd
(VP do
(NP it)
(ADVP-TMP again))))
- including
(PP including
(NP the kitchen sink))
- provided (that)
Note that although the pied piping part of the
pseudo-prepostionhood test doesn't work with that-clauses,
the other criterion (“lack of verbal meaning”) is applicable. In
cases where the that is absent but interpreted, SBAR 0 is
inserted:
(S (NP-SBJ The prepaid plans)
(VP may
(VP be
(NP-PRD a good bet)
,
(PP provided
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ (NP the guarantee)
(PP of
(NP future tuition)))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD secure))))))))
- regarding (when it means about)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP need
(NP (NP some information)
(PP regarding
(NP (NP flights)
(PP-DIR to
(NP Guam)))))))
- Multi-word prepositions.
The above pseudo-prepositions should not be confused with “multi-word”
prepositions, which are bracketed flat. The following is an exhaustive
list of multi-word prepositions: because of, instead of,
rather than, and such as. (See section section 26 [Orphans].)
13.4 Past Participles
Past participles are labeled S, and adverbial function tags are added if
appropriate.
13.4.1 Prepositions
A preposition or subordinator that dominates a past participial clause is
bracketed as SBAR. The rule about prepositions (as described in section
2 on page
??) applies only to -ing clause complements, not to
other sentential complements (i.e., until is always a PP with
gerund complements because it could take an NP complement: until yesterday/last year/etc. However, since past participles are
always Ss, until with a past participle complement is an SBAR).
13.4.2 Function tags
If not under a subordinator, the participle receives the appropriate
function tag.
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ-1 *-2)
(VP Given
(NP *-1)
(NP the chance)))
,
(NP-SBJ-2 I)
(VP 'd
(VP do
(NP it)
(ADVP-TMP again))))
If under a subordinator (here, until), it is the subordinator that
bears the adverbial function tag.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP will
(VP wait
(ADVP-LOC here)
(SBAR-TMP until
(S (NP-SBJ-2 *-1)
(VP asked
(NP-3 *-2)
(S (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP to
(VP leave)))))))))
13.4.3 Coindexation and tracing
Coindexation and tracing proceed as usual with past participles. This
means that there is generally a passive trace coindexed with a null subject
in participial clauses. The null subject is coindexed with another NP in
the sentence if appropriate, according to interpretation.
13.5 Coordination
Coordination rules laid out in section 7 [Coordination] apply to NP, S-NOM, S, S-ADV with
no change. See section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] for more details on the annotation of
coordinate structures and shared elements.
There are only two special cases in the coordination of gerunds and
participles — the coordination of S-NOM with NP, and S becoming
S-NOM in order to coordinate with NP.
- Level of coordination is labeled NP.
The coordination of S-NOM and NP is labeled NP.
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP must
(VP choose
(PP-CLR between
(NP (NP peace)
and
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP keeping
(NP the Communists)
(PP-LOC-CLR out
(PP of
(NP Berlin)
)))))))))
- S becomes S-NOM.
Although the -ing clause object in VP is normally labeled S, it is
labeled S-NOM when it is coordinated with another NP object so that it can
be coordinated under an NP label. Coindexation of the null * subject is
less likely than usual.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP like
(NP (NP cookies)
,
(NP mako sharks)
,
and
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP swimming
(PP-LOC in
(NP the lake))
(PP-TMP on
(NP Tuesdays)))))))
If it is necessary to coordinate any S other than a gerund with an NP, the
coordination must be labeled UCP (Unlike Coordinated Phrase).
(S (NP-SBJ-5 she)
(VP gets
(UCP (NP the best comic bits)
and
(S (NP-SBJ *-5)
(VP to
(VP wear
(NP glamorous dresses)))))))
13.6 Reduced relatives and floating participles
There are two kinds of NP-modifying participle — the “reduced relative”
and the “floating participle”. Reduced relatives are those that are
closely related to the NP, and don't easily appear in any position other
than just after the modified NP. This type tends to roughly correspond to
restrictive relatives (but note that even this rough distinction is
not made for non-reduced relatives). Floating participles are
those that move easily around the sentence (beginning and end of sentence,
as well as just after the noun).
13.6.1 Reduced Relative Clause
The reduced relative clause resembles a restrictive relative clause in
which the complementizer and auxiliary verb are absent. It postmodifies a
noun and consists of either a past participle, a present participle, or an
ADJP, NP, or PP with sentential modifiers.
VP.
If the reduced relative is a past or present participle, the
participle is labeled VP and adjoined to the NP.
(S (NP-SBJ-2 (NP An orangutan)
(VP foaming
(PP-CLR at
(NP the mouth))))
(VP should
not
(VP be
(VP provoked
(NP *-2)))))
In the case of passives, the passive trace is indicated by (NP *).
However, note that this null element does not bear an index, as ordinarily
it would be coindexed with the subject of the relative clause, which in
this case is not present in the annotation.
(S (NP-SBJ He)
(VP bought
(NP (NP two watches)
(VP designed
(NP *)
(PP by
(NP-LGS Paloma Picasso))))))
Notice that the passive trace (NP *) may sometimes function as the subject
of a subordinate clause:
(NP (NP an elephant)
(VP called
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(NP-PRD Dumbo))
(SBAR-PRD because
(S (NP-SBJ his ears)
(VP were
(ADJP-PRD so large))))))
Non-VP: RRC and other likely common alternates.
The label RRC
is used only if the “reduced relative” is not a VP, but rather some other
postmodifier such as NP, PP, ADJP, or ADVP that itself has “sentential”
modifiers. The RRC bracketing provides an additional level under which to
attach these modifiers. (Note that use of RRC is rare.)
(NP (NP 110 titles)
(RRC not
(ADVP-TMP presently)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the collection))))
(NP (NP the negative ad)
,
(RRC (PP-TMP for
(NP years))
(NP (NP a secondary presence)
(PP-LOC in
(NP most political campaigns))))
,)
(NP (NP this kind)
(PP of
(NP mudslinging))
,
(RRC (ADVP-TMP long)
(ADJP empty
(PP of
(NP significant issues))))
,)
However, note that despite this policy and despite the fact that reduced
relatives of this type are fairly widespread in the corpus, the RRC label
is in general not used by the annotators. Instead, one of several
alternate annotations may be found, illustrated here.
- where modifiers are bracketed as children of the modifying phrase.
(NP (NP 110 titles)
(PP-LOC not
(ADVP-TMP presently)
in
(NP the collection)))
(NP (NP the negative ad)
,
(NP (NP (ADVP-TMP always)
a secondary presence)
(PP-LOC in
(NP most political campaigns)))
,)
(NP (NP this kind)
(PP of
(NP mudslinging))
,
(ADJP (ADVP-TMP long)
empty
(PP of
(NP significant issues)))
,)
- where modifiers are adjoined to the modifying phrase.
(NP (NP the negative ad)
,
(NP (PP-TMP for
(NP years))
(NP a secondary presence)
(PP-LOC in
(NP most political campaigns)))
,)
(NP (NP this kind)
(PP of
(NP mudslinging))
,
(ADJP (ADVP-TMP long)
(ADJP empty
(PP of
(NP significant issues))))
,)
- where modifiers are adjoined separately to the NP (as though they were
modifiers of the NP rather than modifiers of the modifying phrase itself).
(This option, which in fact misrepresents the semantic structure, is rare.)
(NP (NP the books)
(PP-LOC on
(NP the shelf))
(NP-TMP yesterday))
(NP (NP the negative ad)
,
(PP-TMP for
(NP years))
(NP (NP a secondary presence)
(PP-LOC in
(NP most political campaigns)))
,)
(NP (NP this kind)
(PP of
(NP mudslinging))
,
(ADVP-TMP long)
(ADJP empty
(PP of
(NP significant issues)))
,)
- which represents the coordination of reduced relatives, with
modifiers placed at the level of coordination.
(NP (NP this kind)
(PP of
(NP mudslinging))
,
(ADJP (ADVP-TMP long)
(ADJP empty
(PP of
(NP significant issues)))
,
but
(ADVP-TMP still)
(ADJP common)))
13.6.2 Floating participles
“Floating participle” is a blanket term used by the Treebank to refer to
a modifying predicate attached at S or VP level. They include past
participles, present participles/gerunds, adjectives, and the occasional NP
or PP. They are bracketed as VPs or -PRDs dominated by an S-ADV.
Floating participles are placed at S-level if they occur before the verb
and at VP-level if they occur after the verb. They are labeled S-ADV,
often with a null subject that is coindexed with the appropriate NP
(usually the subject of the matrix clause).
- Before the subject.
When the floating participle appears before the subject, it is never
analyzed as a reduced relative and is bracketed as follows:
(S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(ADJP-PRD heady
(PP with
(NP success))))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP rushed
(NP it)
(PRT in))))
( (S-3 (S-ADV (NP-SBJ-2 *-1)
(VP Considered
(NP *-2)
(PP-CLR as
(NP a whole))))
(PRN ,
(S (NP-SBJ Mr. Lane)
(VP said
(SBAR 0
(S *T*-3))))
,)
(NP-SBJ-1 the filings)
``
(VP will
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD effective)))
. ''))
( (S (S-ADV (NP-SBJ-2 *-1)
(VP Clad
(NP *-2)
(PP-CLR in
(NP his trademark black velvet suit))))
,
(NP-SBJ-1 the soft-spoken clarinetist)
(VP announced
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ-9 (NP his new album)
, ``
(NP-TTL Inner Voices)
, '')
(VP had
(ADVP-TMP just)
(VP been
(VP released
(NP *-9)))))))
.))
- After the subject; nonadjacent to the subject.
When the floating participle appears after the subject and nonadjacent to
the subject, it is never analyzed as a reduced relative:
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP rushed
(NP it)
(PRT in)
,
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(ADJP-PRD heady
(PP with
(NP success))))))
- After the subject; adjacent to the subject.
If the participle appears after the subject but adjacent to it or its
modifiers, it can be bracketed either as a reduced relative or as a
floating participle. Annotators use the following tests to decide whether
a given modifier is a reduced relative or a floating participle. (Of
course, which test(s) the annotator decides to use will influence the
eventual annotation. In most cases, the outcome is the same, but there is
some variation in the results.) The tests are listed in the order that
they are most likely to be used by the annotators.
Distinguishing floating participle from reduced relative:
- Mobility.
Is its semantic relation to the sentence maintained if it is moved around
the sentence?
Yes → floating participle
No → reduced relative
“??Reported by the advisory committee, the progress is real”
This participial clause cannot move; therefore, reduced relative.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The progress)
(VP reported
(NP *)
(PP by
(NP-LGS the advisory committee))))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD real)))
- Commas.
Does it have comma intonation (insofar as that can be ascertained)? There
is a strong tendency for the choice to be influenced by the presence of
commas in the text, which signal comma intonation in the case of floating
participles.
Yes → floating participle
No → reduced relative
“And now, the woman, tired and trembling, came here...”
This participial clause requires comma intonation; therefore, floating
participle.
(S And
(ADVP-TMP now)
,
(NP-SBJ-1 the woman)
,
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(UCP-PRD (ADJP-PRD tired)
and
(VP trembling)))
,
(VP came
(ADVP-DIR here)
(PP-DIR to
(NP the DeKalb County cannery))))
- Paraphrase with while or being.
Is its semantic relation to the sentence maintained if while or being is inserted?
Yes → floating participle
No → reduced relative
“The Rusk belief, while replacing...”
This is OK; therefore, floating participle.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP The Rusk belief)
(PP in
(NP balanced defense)))
,
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP replacing
(NP (NP the Dulles theory)
(PP of
(NP massive retaliation)))))
,
(VP removes
(NP a grave danger)))
“The progress, while reported...”
This is not OK; therefore, reduced relative.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The progress)
(VP reported
(NP *)
(PP by
(NP-LGS the advisory committee))))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD real)))
- Paraphrase with which/that is/are.
Is its semantic relation to the sentence maintained if which/that
is/are is inserted?
Yes → reduced relative
No → floating participle
“The progress that is reported...”
This is good; therefore, reduced relative.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The progress)
(VP reported
(NP *)
(PP by
(NP-LGS the advisory committee))))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD real)))
- Non-participial S-ADVs.
Note that although the vast majority of S-ADVs are in fact “floating
participles”, any adverbial modifier that contains a predicate merits S +
the relevant adverbial tag(s), for example infinitival clauses and things
such as I hope not too late:
(S (S (NP-SBJ She)
(VP asked
(SBAR if
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP had
(NP other advice))))))
and
,
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP rushed
(NP it)
(PRT in)
,
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ I)
(VP hope
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(ADJP-PRD not too late))))))))
14 Infinitives
14.1 Bare infinitives
14.1.1 Complements of verbs
Bare infinitives (i.e. ones without to
preceding them) are bracketed as VPs. The bare infinitive complements of
perception verbs (see, hear, feel) and causative verbs (make,
let, have; also help) are bracketed together with the NP preceding
them as a complement S. The structural subjects of both the matrix clause
and the embedded clause are tagged -SBJ.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP saw
(S (NP-SBJ him)
(VP do
(NP it)))))
Imperatives are bracketed similarly. The addressee, if
present in the sentence, is tagged -VOC. Note that the * subject is not
coindexed with the -VOC phrase.
(S (NP-VOC Junior)
,
(NP-SBJ *)
(VP finish
(NP your dinner)))
14.2 To infinitives
These fall into quite a few categories, but the
basic structure of an infinitival with to is:
(S (NP-SBJ <subject>)
(VP to
(VP <main verb> ...)))
The <subject> may be either overt, a null *, or in certain relative
clauses, a null *T*.
14.2.1 Infinitival relative clauses (IRCs)
The null * subject of an IRC is never indexed, except when the gap is in
subject position, in which case the WHNP element is coindexed with a *T*.
- Trace in verbal object position.
(NP (NP much research)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP do
(NP *T*-1))))))
- Trace in prepositional object position.
(NP (NP a crisis)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP get
(PP-CLR past
(NP *T*-1))
(PP-TMP within (NP a few days)))))))
- Trace in subject position.
- With for.
(NP (NP a desirable organization)
(SBAR (WHNP-3 0)
for
(S (NP-SBJ us)
(VP to
(VP join
(NP *T*-3))))))
- Trace in adjunct position.
(NP (NP time)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP go
(ADVP-TMP *T*-1))))))
- With wh-word.
(NP (NP three levels)
(SBAR (WHPP-1 on
(WHNP which))
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP treat
(NP the subject)
(PP-LOC *T*-1))))))
- Some tricky cases.
Despite the occasional intuition that the following infinitivals and
others like them are complements, they are bracketed as adjunct relative
clauses.
- the first...to...
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP was
(NP-PRD (NP the first)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the series))
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ-2 *T*-1)
(VP to
(VP be
(VP sponsored
(NP *-2)
(PP by
(NP-LGS First Lady
Jacqueline Kennedy))))))))))
- the only...to...
(S (NP-SBJ The National Gallery)
(VP is
(NP (NP the only museum)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the country))
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP to
(VP have
(NP a full-time music director))))))))
14.2.2 Complements of nouns
The infinitival complements of nouns do not get SBAR structure and are
instead labeled S. The null subject in this case does not get an index.
(See section 11 [Modification of NP] for more information about the bracketing of complements of
nouns.)
(NP a brave attempt
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP describe
(NP the English language)))))
14.2.3 Complements of adjectives/adverbs
The likely type (with null subject).
Certain (“subject-raising”) adjectives, such as likely, take an
infinitival complement whose subject is interpreted as coreferent with the
subject of the matrix clause. For these adjectives, the null * subject of
the infinitive is coindexed to the matrix subject.
(S (NP-SBJ-4 This distinction)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD likely
(S (NP-SBJ *-4)
(VP to
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD difficult)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Zaphod)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD ready , willing , and able
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP eat
(NP the steak)))))))
The tough type (with null object).
Other adjectives, such as tough, take an infinitival complement
that contains a gapped object (of PP or VP), which is represented with *T*,
coindexed to a (WHNP 0) in an SBAR introducing the clause.
(S (NP-SBJ A pro)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD tough/easy/hard
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP beat
(NP *T*-1))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP Sentences)
(PP with ` (NP tough) '))
(VP are
(ADJP-PRD tough
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
for
(S (NP-SBJ syntacticians)
(VP to
(VP explain
(NP *T*-1))))))))
(S ``
(NP-TTL-SBJ Psyche)
''
,
(VP is
(NP-PRD (NP a lush , sweet-sounding affair)
(SBAR
(WHNP-2 that)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-2)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD pleasant
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP encounter
(NP *T*-1)
(ADVP-TMP once
again))))))))))))
After enough.
Enough introduces an infinitival clause with either a null or
overt subject, and no gap otherwise.
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP has
not
(VP been
(NP-PRD (NP time)
(ADJP enough
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP institute
(NP reforms)))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ We)
(VP want
(S (NP-SBJ our policy)
(VP to
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD consistent enough
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP please
(NP everyone))))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 We)
(VP need
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP put
(PRT in)
(NP enough gas
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP reach
(NP Reno))))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 We)
(VP need
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP put
(PRT in)
(NP enough gas
(SBAR for
(S (NP-SBJ the car)
(VP to
(VP reach
(NP Reno)))))))))))
After too.
Too in an adjective or adverb phrase often introduces an
infinitival clause that indicates extent. Some of these have obvious gaps,
and in others it's difficult to find one. If a gap is apparent, the
infinitival is labeled SBAR, and a *T* in the position of the gap is
coindexed with (WHNP 0) in SBAR, as in (a) and (b). If no gap is apparent,
the infinitival is labeled S and attached under ADJP, as in (c).
- Object gap.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The desolation)
(PP of
(NP a post-attack world)))
(VP would
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD too awful
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP face
(NP *T*-1)))))))))
- Subject gap.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP (NP Col. Faget 's)
information)
(PP on (NP Cuba)))
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD too outdated
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP to
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD useful))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ Miss Schwarzkopf)
(VP is
(NP-PRD (NP (ADJP too great)
an artist)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP to
(VP need
(NP them))))))))
- No apparent gap.
(S (S (NP-SBJ-2 the risks)
(VP were
(ADJP-PRD-3 too high
(S *RNR*-1))))
and
(S (NP-SBJ=2 the potential payoff)
(ADVP-PRD=3 too far
(PP in
(NP the future))
(S *RNR*-1)))
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP justify
(NP a higher offer)))))
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD too late
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP worry
(PP-CLR about
(NP that))))))))
14.2.4 Purpose/reason clauses
Sentential purpose clauses.
Normal infinitive purpose clauses (i.e., those without a gap) express a
purpose/reason for the action described by the verb. They are simply
labeled S-PRP and attached at VP level. The null subject is coindexed as
appropriate.
(S (NP-SBJ-3 Mary)
(VP took
(NP a class)
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP to
(VP learn
(NP statistics))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The figures)
(VP were
(VP adjusted
(NP *-1)
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP remove
(NP (NP the effects)
(PP of
(NP usual seasonal patterns)))))))))
Object and subject purpose clauses (OPCs and SPCs).
Object and subject
purpose clauses express a purpose for an object, as opposed to a
purpose/reason for the action described by the sentence as a whole. They
contain a gap and are usually bracketed as relative clauses, possibly with
a -PRP tag on the SBAR or S. As noted, if the gap is not obvious, the
clause may be bracketed as a sentential purpose/reason clause.
- Object.
(S (NP-SBJ We)
(VP bought
(NP (NP a broom)
(SBAR-PRP (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP sweep
(NP the floor)
(PP-MNR with
(NP *T*-1)))))))))
- Subject.
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP designed
(NP (NP telescopes)
(SBAR-PRP (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP to
(VP sit
(PP-LOC on
(NP Kitt Peak)))))))))
SPCs are difficult to distinguish from infinitival semicomplements (see
section 15 [Small Clauses], under “design-type verbs”), so the above sentence may
receive the analysis below instead.
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP designed
(NP-3 telescopes)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *-3)
(VP to
(VP sit
(PP-LOC on (NP Kitt Peak)))))))
14.2.5 Complements of verbs
Indirect questions.
Infinitival clauses headed by a wh-word are bracketed just as
tensed complement clauses are, with a null subject.
(S (NP-SBJ-2 I)
(VP do n't
(VP know
(SBAR (WHNP-1 what)
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP do
(NP *T*-1)
(PP-CLR with
(NP this sentence)))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-2 I)
(VP asked
(NP the boss)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 what)
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP do
(NP *T*-1)))))))
Ditransitives.
The Treebank recognizes only a very small number of verbs that allow an
infinitive clause complement with a separate NP indirect object. The
following list of ditransitives is based on
[Quirk et al. 1985], section 16.63:
advise ask beg beseech challenge command counsel detail
direct enjoin exhort forbid implore incite instruct
invite order persuade pray promise remind request
recommend teach tell urge
By default, verbs not on this list are bracketed as monotransitives taking
a single S complement. Note that verbs like allow, authorize, bribe,
encourage, force, inspire, and require are not included here, and
should be bracketed with a single S complement.
(For ease of reference, much of this information is repeated in section 15 [Small Clauses].
See [Quirk et al. 1985], section 16.66, for more on the problem of distinguishing
ditransitives from complex transitives.)
These infinitive clause complements have a null subject that is coindexed
with the subject or indirect object of the verb, according to
interpretation.
(S (NP-SBJ Ford)
(VP persuaded
(NP-1 Zaphod)
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP run
(PP-CLR for
(NP president)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Zaphod)
(VP promised
(NP Ford)
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP run
(PP-CLR for
(NP president)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Zaphod)
(VP was
(VP persuaded
(NP-2 *-1)
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP run
(PP-CLR for
(NP Galactic president))))))))
Monotransitives and complex transitives.
All verbs in these classes are
bracketed with a single clausal S complement. If there is no expressed
subject, a null subject is added and coindexed with the logical antecedent.
If the clause is introduced by for, for appears as a
complementizer inside SBAR.
- With overt subject.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP believe
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP to
(VP be
(NP-PRD a fair copy))))))
(S (NP-SBJ The following prompts)
(VP allow
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP to
(VP specify
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 how)
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP want
(S (NP-SBJ the printed output)
(VP to
(VP look
(ADVP-MNR *T*-1))))))))))))
- With null subject.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 We)
(VP decided
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP move)))))
This includes “raising” constructions:
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The Soviets)
(VP are
(ADVP widely)
(VP believed
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP need
(NP additional supplies)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 the demon)
(VP seems
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP have
(VP gone))))))
- after be
When be acts as a semi-modal, the subject of the infinitival clause
is coindexed and the S should not receive a -PRD tag.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 You)
(VP are
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP resign
(ADVP-TMP immediately))))))
However, if be is acting as a simple linking verb, the S complement
is tagged -PRD and its subject is not coindexed.
(S (NP-SBJ His idea)
(VP was
(S-PRD (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP leave
(ADVP-TMP (ADVP as soon)
(PP as
(ADJP possible))))))))
- With for.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP sat
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP waiting
(SBAR for
(S (NP-SBJ Life)
(VP to
(VP (VP come
(ADVP-CLR along))
and
(VP sweep
(NP me)
(PRT up))))))))))
- With extraposition.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP consider
(S (NP-SBJ (NP it)
(S *EXP*-3))
(VP to
(VP be
(NP-PRD my job)
(S-3 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP keep
(S (NP-SBJ-2 the customer)
(VP (ADVP well)
informed
(NP *-2)))))))))))
Semi-complement clauses.
Certain verbs (e.g., use, design, hire, build) are frequently
followed by a closely related adjunct clause. However, they are not
generally considered complements, since deleting the clause does not
appreciably change the meaning of the verb. These clauses are frequently
bracketed with -CLR, however, to indicate the middle ground that they
occupy between argument and adjunct.
(See section 15 [Small Clauses] for examples and more information (under “Use and verbs
like design”) and also section 14.2.4 above
(page ??, under “SPCs”).)
Verbs like cost and take.
These verbs appear in two different constructions that alternate with
each other, as listed below. Possible approaches to bracketing are listed
under each.
- Infinitival semi-complement. Verbs like cost and take
often introduce a (noun phrase) complement of duration or extent, followed
by an infinitival semicomplement that contains a gap that is often
interpreted as coreferential with the matrix subject:
The process / will take / as many as six months / to complete ___
The place / costs / nearly $2 million a year / to maintain ___
- Infinitival labeled S-CLR, gap not marked.
(S (NP-SBJ The process)
(VP will
(VP take
(NP (QP as many as six)
months)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP complete))))))
- Infinitival labeled S-PRP, gap not marked.
(S (NP-SBJ The place)
(VP costs
(NP (NP (QP nearly $ 2 million) *U*)
(NP-ADV a year))
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP maintain)))))
- Infinitival labeled S-CLR, gap marked with *?* (ellipsed material).
(S (NP-SBJ The plant)
(VP will
(VP cost
(NP (QP about 50 million) Canadian dollars)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP build
(NP *?*)))))))
- it-extraposition. These verbs also appear in a construction that
looks like it-extraposition, though it is not necessarily bracketed
that way (see section 17 [It-Extraposition] for more on the annotation of extraposition
structures):
It / will take / as many as six months / to complete the process.
It / costs / nearly $2 million a year / to maintain the place.
It / will take / Ford / 242 days / to sell off the current inventory.
- Infinitival labeled S-PRP, infinitival null subject coindexed with
matrix object.
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP may
(VP take
(NP-2 us)
(NP (QP six to nine) months)
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP find
(NP the money)))))))
- Extraposition structure, no coindexation.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP it)
(S *EXP*-1))
(VP may
(VP take
(NP us)
(NP (QP six to nine) months)
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP find
(NP the money)))))))
15 Small Clauses and their near relatives
This section is concerned with the closely related complements of certain
verbs. The verbs discussed here generally have a noun phrase complement
that is the logical subject of a second complement that appears to be
predicated of the first complement – a construction often referred to as a
“small clause”. However, since we cannot hope to capture all the
subtleties of the small clause-type structures described in syntactic
literature, we therefore annotate alike all complement pairs that show a
predicative relationship. As a result, this section covers many
constructions that are not “small clauses” in the technical sense,
including constructions which upon closer inspection may in fact not merit
the predicative analysis we give them here.
Note also that the policy described here turns out to be a bit too complex
to follow entirely consistently. Users of the corpus should therefore
expect a little roughness around the edges.
15.1 Bracketing
In general, non-finite clausal complements are labeled S. The
“subject” of the clause is marked -SBJ, and the “predicate” is marked
-PRD (unless the predicate is a VP, which never bears the -PRD tag).
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP consider
(S (NP-SBJ Kris)
(NP-PRD a fool))))
If the verb is passive, the null passive object is shown as the subject of
a clause:
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Kris)
(VP is
(VP considered
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(NP-PRD a fool))
(PP by
(NP-LGS most people)))))
Small clauses may be structurally distinguished from ordinary main clauses
by the fact that they are immediately dominated by a VP and lack a tensed
verb or modal (POS-tagged VBP, VBZ, VBD, or MD) in an S-level VP.
15.2 Small clause criteria
The main difficulty lies in distinguishing whether a particular verb has
a clausal complement or two independent complements that are not so closely
related (the latter exemplified by give Calvin a comic book or
persuade Hobbes to eat Calvin, neither of which are given the small
clause analysis). In all cases, for a pair of complements to be eligible
for “small clause” bracketing, the NP complement must be the logical
subject of the second complement.
In addition, it should meet certain requirements (in the form of syntactic
and semantic tests which are specific to the nature of the predicate) as
described in the following sections. The tests in a given section are only
intended to apply to the sort of predicate that the section is concerned
with. For example, the criteria for adjectival predicates do not apply to
adverbial predicates, and vice-versa. The intention of this policy is to
make bracketing decisions much faster and easier, by allowing the annotator
to decide most cases by quick, easy rules, only resorting to Tests in a few
cases. (Note that despite this intention, some annotators occasionally
confused the sections and applied incorrect criteria to different
predicates, especially among the non-verbal predicates. Again, users of
the corpus should expect a little roughness around the edges.)
15.3 Overt subject clausal complements
15.3.1 Verbal predicates
- to-infinitives.
These are usually bracketed as a single S, with a small list of
ditransitive exceptions (see below) and some variation in the case of verbs
of the use/design type (see page ??). (See
section 14 [Infinitives] for a slightly longer story on these.)
- Monotransitives: S complement.
Most verbs take a single S complement.
(S (NP-SBJ This)
(VP does not
(VP allow
(S (NP-SBJ the mystery)
(VP to
(VP invade
(NP us)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP had
(ADVP-TMP finally)
(VP gotten
(S (NP-SBJ (NP Chairman Bill Hollowell)
(PP of
(NP the committee)))
(VP to
(VP set
(NP it)
(PP-CLR for
(NP (NP public hearing)
(PP-TMP on
(NP Feb. 22))))))))))
- Ditransitives: NP + S complement.
The following verbs are considered ditransitives and take an NP and an S
complement. (Note that here we are only concerned with ditransitives that
have clausal complements; see section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] and section 2 [Notation] for
information about verbs (such as give or compare) that take
two complements or semicomplements that are not clausal.)
advise ask
beg beseech
challenge command counsel
detail direct
enjoin exhort
forbid
implore incite inform instruct invite
order
persuade pray promise
remind request recommend
teach tell
urge
By default, verbs not on this list are bracketed as monotransitives
taking a single S complement. Note that verbs like allow, authorize,
bribe, encourage, force, inspire, and require are not included here,
and are bracketed with a single S complement.
(S (NP-SBJ He)
(VP told
(NP-1 me)
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP wake
(NP you))))))
- Use and verbs like design.
Verbs of this category are bracketed according to a system that grew out of
annotator conventions and semi-official decisions that were followed to
varying degrees, as described here.
- Triple complements.
These are very rare. One common way of handling such constructions might
be:
(S (PP-TMP In (NP 1607 and 1608))
,
(NP-SBJ the English Muscovy Company)
(VP had
(VP sent
(NP-1 him)
(ADVP-DIR northward)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *-1) <+ might have -PRP too +>
(VP to
(VP look
(PP-CLR for
(NP (NP a route)
(PP-LOC
(PP over
(NP the North Pole))
or
(PP across
(NP (NP the top)
(PP of
(NP Russia)))))))))))))
- Bare infinitives.
These are always bracketed as a single S. (see section 14 [Infinitives] list for details.)
(S (NP-SBJ The following)
(VP helps
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP plan
(PP-CLR for
(NP (NP future use)
(PP of
(NP the system monitor))))))))
- Present participles.
These are bracketed as a single S. (See also section 13 [Gerunds and Participles].)
(S (NP-SBJ You)
(VP 'd
(VP see
(S (NP-SBJ her)
(VP correcting
(NP homework)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the stands))
(PP-LOC at
(NP a football game)))))))
(S (ADVP Lastly)
,
(NP-SBJ-1 governmental and private planners)
(VP will
(PP-TMP at (NP this stage))
(VP begin
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP see
(S (NP-SBJ large capital requirements)
(VP looming
(ADVP-LOC-CLR ahead)))))))))
(Note that this could also be interpreted as “requirements which
are looming”, in which case it should be bracketed as a reduced
relative. See section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for details on the bracketing of reduced relatives.)
- Past participles.
These are bracketed as a single S. The gap contains a passive trace
coindexed with the clausal subject.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP want
(S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP the room)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the attic)))
(VP prepared
(NP *-1)
(PP-BNF for
(NP him))))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP the man)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP submits
(NP a manuscript)
(PP-CLR to (NP a publisher))))))
(VP will
(VP find
(S (NP-SBJ-3 himself)
(VP reviewed
(NP *-3)
(SBAR-TMP before
(S (NP-SBJ-2 he)
(VP is (VP accepted (NP *-2))))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP had
(VP had
(S (NP-SBJ-1 my name)
(VP taken
(NP *-1)
(PP-DIR out
(PP of
(NP the telephone book))))))))
15.3.2 Adjectival predicates
These are generally given a clausal analysis. Verbs that receive the
clausal analysis for their adjectival predicates include but are not
limited to hold, keep, leave; call, report; like, prefer, want;
believe, consider, find, imagine, presume, think; drive, get, make;
certify, declare, proclaim. (This list is based on
[Quirk et al. 1985], section 16.44.)
(S (NP-SBJ People)
(VP find
(S (NP-SBJ this statement)
(ADJP-PRD utterly impenetrable))))
- With as.
Adjectival predicates introduced by as are labeled PP-CLR, with no
small clause.
(S (NP-SBJ They)
(VP do not
(VP consider
(NP (NP themselves)
and
(NP their plight))
(PP-CLR as
(ADJP statistical)))))
- Resultatives.
A few adjectival “predicates” are more adverbial than predicative and
are not given the clausal analysis. These are extremely rare (12 in the
entire WSJ corpus). This bracketing is used only when eliminating the
putative predicate causes no substantial change in the meaning of the rest
of the sentence.
That is, if you:
lick the platter clean
eat fish uncooked
paint the town red
shoot the man dead
pound the nail flat
you also:
lick the platter
eat fish
paint the town
shoot the man
pound the nail
However, if you:
drive your parents crazy
get your brother in trouble
make your sister happy
declare the manual unwritable
you generally don't:
drive your parents
get your brother
make your sister
declare the manual
Thus the second set of verbs take a simple small clause analysis. The
first set, on the other hand, get the more complicated resultative
structure:
(S (NP-SBJ They)
(VP painted
(NP-1 the apartment)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *-1)
(ADJP-PRD orange
,
pink
and
white))
,
(PP according
(PP to
(NP her instructions)))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP the government 's)
action)
(VP caught
(NP-2 Jaguar management)
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-2)
(ADJP-PRD flat-footed))))
(S (NP-SBJ She)
(VP had
(VP (VP raised
(NP a calf))
,
(VP grown
(NP-1 it)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *-1)
(ADJP-PRD beef-fat))))))
- Pseudo-adjectives.
Phrases with adjectival meaning and predicate adjective distribution that
are labeled something other than ADJP also receive a clausal analysis.
(S (NP-SBJ John)
(VP got
(S (NP-SBJ Bob)
(PP-PRD in
(NP trouble)))))
(S (NP-SBJ Sam)
(VP wanted
(S (NP-SBJ the whole house)
(PP-PRD in
(NP order))
(SBAR-TMP before
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP came
(ADVP-DIR downstairs)))))))
15.3.3 Nominal predicates
Verbs with two NP complements receive either a small clause analysis:
(S (NP-SBJ The late
(NAC Secretary (PP of (NP State)))
John Foster Dulles)
(VP considered
(S (NP-SBJ the 1954 Geneva agreement)
(NP-PRD (NP a specimen)
(PP of (NP appeasement))))))
or a double object analysis:
(S (NP-SBJ His bel canto style)
(VP gave
(NP the performance)
(NP a special distinction)))
Small clauses are distinguished by an equative relationship between the
first complement (NP1) and the second (NP2). That is, two NP complements
are given the clausal analysis when it makes sense to say “NP1 is NP2”.
In almost all cases where a small clause bracketing was conceivable, the
annotator made the NPs into a small clause. Therefore, virtually all NP
pairs that are directly under a VP and not within a complement clause (and
also not tagged with -CLR, -TMP, etc.) are indirect object/direct object
pairs.
Verbs that can take this kind of Small Clause include hold, keep,
leave, call, pronounce; wish; believe, consider, find, imagine, think;
appoint, elect, make, vote; certify, christen, declare, name, among
others.
For example:
- Small Clause
(S (NP-SBJ House Speaker Sam Rayburn)
(VP called
(S (NP-SBJ the Kennedy program)
``
(NP-PRD a (ADJP mighty fine) thing)
'')))
(S (NP-SBJ That)
(VP makes
(S (NP-SBJ them)
(NP-PRD a reasonable option))))
(S (NP-SBJ-29 (NP John A. Conlon Jr.)
,
(NP 45)
,)
(VP was
(VP named
(S (NP-SBJ *-29)
(NP-PRD (NP a managing director)
(PP-LOC at
(NP this investment-banking company)))))))
- Double object
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP permitted
(NP the invading car)
(NP free access)))
15.3.4 Adverbial predicates
Most ADVP and PP complements that express direction or location are not shown as small clauses, and are instead tagged with -CLR or -LOC-CLR
(with the exception of put, whose locative complement gets -PUT).
These verbs include put, get, send, drive, show, keep, leave, among
others.
(S (NP-SBJ We)
(VP put
(NP the proposal)
(PP-PUT on (NP the table))))
(S (NP-SBJ We)
(VP left
(NP the cat)
(PP-LOC-CLR at (NP home))))
There are, however, a few (about 100 tokens) adverbial small clauses in the
corpus. These include cases where the “adverbial” is actually
adjectival, but receives a bracket label such as PP (see
“pseudo-adjectives” in section 3
(page ??) for more information). They also
include cases where the annotator had an strong intuition of
small-clauseness, misunderstood the policy, or simply made an error. This
is most likely to happen with verbs like get, keep, and leave, which frequently appear with adjectival predicates.
(S (NP-SBJ The doctor)
(VP wanted
(S (NP-SBJ him)
(PP-LOC-PRD in (NP a hospital)))))
(S (NP-SBJ they)
``
(VP could
(VP get
(S (NP-SBJ some roadblocks)
(PP-PRD out
(PP of
(NP the way)))))))
- With as:
- Predicates introduced with as are labeled with
PP-CLR, without a small clause:
(VP consider
(NP Spain , Portugal and Greece)
(PP-CLR as
(NP possible manufacturing sites)))
(VP listed
(NP (NP the mayor 's)
occupation)
(PP-CLR as
`` (NP attorney) ''))
15.3.5 Particle predicates
Particles are not treated as clausal predicates, although some
particle verbs appear with constructions that resemble small clauses. For
example, in turn the light off, “the light” is “off” as a result
of the action described by the verb. We do not, however, bracket these as
small clauses.
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP turn
(NP the light)
(PRT off)))
15.4 Null subject clausal complements
- to-infinitive complement.
If the verb is active, and there is a single infinitival complement (one
which is not a purpose clause), the complement S is bracketed with a null
subject. In general, the null subject should also be coindexed with the
subject of the main clause. However, if the sentential subject is not
interpreted as the subject of the lower clause, there is no coindexation.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP would
(VP like
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP think
(PP-CLR of
(NP (NP a way)
(SBAR
(WHADVP-2 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP make
(NP a little extra money)
(ADVP-MNR *T*-2)))))))))))))
(S But
,
(INTJ alas)
,
(NP-SBJ-1 the authenticity)
(VP seems
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP stop
(PP-LOC-CLR at
(NP (NP the set 's) edge)))))))
- -ing participial clauses (includes “serial verbs”).
These are also labeled S and given null subjects, coindexed as
appropriate. (See section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] for more information on the bracketing of
participial complements of VP.)
(S (NP-SBJ-1 I)
(VP 'd
(ADVP rather)
(VP (VP keep
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP bailing)))
--
or
(VP sink))))
(S (ADVP Characteristically)
,
(NP-SBJ-1 Trevelyan)
(VP enjoyed
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP writing
(NP the work)))))
- Small clause complements (as defined in
section 15.3 above).
Passives of verbs that take single clausal complements are annotated with
the (NP *) passive trace in subject position of the small clause. Examples
are given here for verbal, adjectival, and nominal predicates.
- Verbal.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Professional responsibility)
(VP is
(VP seen
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP consist
(ADVP largely)
(PP-CLR in
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP serving
(NP (NP the wishes)
(PP of (NP the client)))
(UCP-MNR (ADVP fairly)
and
(PP in
(NP an efficient
manner))))))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP the tall figure)
(PP with
(NP the rifle and field glasses)))
(VP had
(VP been
(VP seen
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP riding
(NP-DIR that way)))))))
- Adjectival.
(S-3 (NP-SBJ-1 Such vital information)
(PRN ,
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP said
(SBAR 0
(S *T*-3))))
,)
(VP has
(S (NP-SBJ-2 *-1)
(VP to
(VP be
(VP made
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(ADJP-PRD available
(PP to
(NP the public))))
(UCP-TMP (ADVP frequently)
and
(PP at (NP regular intervals)))
(SBAR-PRP for
(S (NP-SBJ residents)
(VP to
(VP know))))))))))
- Nominal.
(S And
(NP-SBJ-1 he)
(VP was
n't
(ADVP really)
(VP elected
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(NP-PRD (NP treasurer)
(PP of (NP the science club)))))))
(NP (NP a factor)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 which)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP has
(VP caused
(S (NP-SBJ the Citizens Group)
(VP to
(VP obtain
(NP signatures)
(PP under
(SBAR-NOM
(WHNP-2 what)
(S (NP-3 *T*-2)
(VP were
(VP termed
(S (NP-SBJ *-3)
``
(NP-PRD false pretenses)
''))))))))))))))
- Double complement passives.
Verbs that take a double complement when not passive receive the same
analysis when in the passive, with the same sort of coindexing.
- Ditransitive infinitive (cf. section 15.3.1).
Verbs such as persuade in the passive are annotated with two null
elements: a passive trace coindexed with the structural subject and a null
subject in the infinitive coindexed with the passive object.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Zaphod)
(VP was
(VP persuaded
(NP-2 *-1)
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP run
(PP-CLR for (NP Galactic president))))))))
- Adverbial adjective/Resultative (cf. section 15.3.2)
(S (NP-SBJ-1 Fish)
(VP are
(ADVP-TMP sometimes)
(VP eaten
(NP-2 *-1)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *-2)
(ADJP-PRD uncooked)))))
15.5 Special problems
When the NP is “heavy” and therefore moved past the predicate, the
clause is bracketed S and the different word order is represented by the
-SBJ tag on the subject.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP (VP lifted
(NP the lines)
(PP-CLR from (NP the dust)))
and
(VP found
(S (VP hitched
(NP *-2)
(PP-CLR to (NP that plow)))
(NP-SBJ-2 (NP the finest team)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(ADVP-TMP ever)
(VP held
(NP a rein)
(PP-CLR on
(NP *T*-1))))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ The Supreme Court)
(VP let
(S (VP stand)
(NP-SBJ (NP a New York court 's)
ruling
(SBAR that ...)))))
(Note in some cases annotators labeled these clauses SINV, even though this
is slightly inconsistent with the definition of SINV as “S containing
tensed verb or modal preceding clause subject”. Since small clauses don't
contain a tensed verb or modal, by definition they should not be labeled
SINV.)
15.5.2 Coordination
Small clauses, like everything else, are coordinated as low as possible.
(S (NP-SBJ The cow)
(VP kept
(S (S (NP-SBJ her eyes)
(ADJP-PRD open))
and
(S (NP-SBJ her mind)
(PP-PRD on (NP her business))))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP any one)
(PP of
(NP these spiced meats)))
(VP (VP makes
(S-4 (NP-SBJ a man)
(NP-PRD a cook)))
,
and
(VP (ADVP-TMP sometimes)
(S=4 (NP-SBJ a meal)
(NP-PRD a feast)))))
16 Clefts
16.1 It-clefts (or “true” clefts)
Cleft sentences contain the non-referential subject pronoun it,
followed by a form of the verb be, followed by the clefted portion,
followed by a final clause with gap (e.g., It / is / the clumsy child
/ who sustains the worst injuries).
16.1.1 Declarative it-clefts
Declarative it-clefts are labeled S-CLF; it receives the -SBJ
tag as the surface subject; the clefted part (or focus) is tagged -PRD as
the complement of be; the final clause (SBAR) is attached at VP
level and is not marked with a dash tag.
The adverbial function tags (-LOC, -MNR, -PRP, -TMP, etc.) are used only on
the trace in the subordinate clause, not in the clefted part of the
sentence, which may only be tagged -PRD.
- Subject as focus:
(S-CLF (NP-SBJ It)
(VP is
(NP-PRD the clumsy child)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP sustains
(NP the worst injuries))))))
- Direct object as focus:
(S-CLF (NP-SBJ It)
(VP is
(NP-PRD this conclusion)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP challenge
(NP *T*-1))))))
- Manner as focus:
(S-CLF (NP-SBJ It)
(VP was
(ADVP-PRD slowly)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ Kris)
(VP opened
(NP the door)
(ADVP-MNR *T*-1))))))
- Time as focus:
(S-CLF (NP-SBJ It)
(VP is
(ADVP-PRD then)
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ-2 young queens)
(VP begin
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP appear)))
(ADVP-TMP *T*-1))))))
- Location as focus:
(S-CLF (NP-SBJ It)
(VP was
(PP-PRD at
(NP the bus stop))
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP met
(ADVP-LOC *T*-1))))))
- Purpose/reason as focus:
(S-CLF (NP-SBJ It)
(VP was
(SBAR-PRD because
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP got
(ADJP-PRD sick))))
(SBAR (WHADVP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP cancelled
(NP the meeting)
(ADVP-PRP *T*-1))))))
16.1.2 Interrogative it-clefts
Interrogative cleft sentences are labeled SQ-CLF (see section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] for the
treatment of SQs). The rest of the sentence is annotated as described
above for declarative clefts.
(SQ-CLF Was
(NP-SBJ it)
(NP-PRD John)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP came
(PP-DIR to
(NP the party))
(PP-MNR in
(NP a dress)))))
?)
16.1.3 Inversion in it-clefts
A cleft sentence that appears inside an SINV is labeled SINV-CLF and the
postposed clause is attached at VP level, as with other types of clefts
described in this section. In this case, the inverted cleft functions as a
conditional clause and is thus labeled SBAR-ADV (see section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] for more
on the treatment of inverted conditionals):
(S (SBAR-ADV (SINV-CLF Had
(NP-SBJ it)
(VP been
(NP-PRD (NP Wonder Woman)
(CONJP rather than)
(NP Aquaman))
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP was
(VP flying
(NP the plane))))))))
(NP-SBJ it)
(VP might
not
(VP have
(VP crashed))))
16.1.4 Gapping across cleft sentences
Gapping across cleft sentences proceeds in the same way as with other
instances of gapping.
(S-CLF (PP-TMP In
(NP the past))
,
(NP-SBJ it)
(VP has
(VP (VP been
(NP-PRD-2 the husband)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 who)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP has
(VP been
(ADJP-PRD-3 dominant))))))
and
(VP (NP-PRD=2 the wife)
(ADJP-PRD=3 passive)))))
]
16.2 Wh-clefts (or “pseudo” clefts)
Wh-clefts do not receive special treatment in the corpus. They
contain a free/headless relative, followed by a form of the verb be, followed by a predicate (e.g., What sustained the worst
injuries / was / the car). (See section 9 [WH-Phrases] on free relatives.)
17 It-Extraposition
17.1 It-extraposition from subject position
When a clausal subject is postposed, expletive it appears in the
structural subject position. Characteristic of it-extraposition is
that the final clause can replace it: It is a pleasure to teach
her → To teach her is a pleasure.
17.1.1 Declaratives with it-extraposition
Declaratives with it-extraposition are analyzed as it +
be + predicate + logical subject. Sentences that contain
extraposed clausal subjects are labeled S. The final clause is attached at
VP level and adjoined to the it with *EXP*-attach, and the NP
containing the two is tagged -SBJ as the surface subject. Like the SBARs
in it-clefts, and unlike all other non-complement SBARs in VP, the
extraposed clauses do not have adverbial dash tags. As usual, the
complement of be bears the -PRD tag. Note that the -LGS tag is not
used in this case, but only for the logical subjects of passive sentences
(see section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] and section 4 [Null Elements] on -LGS).
(S (NP-SBJ (NP It)
(S *EXP*-1))
(VP is
(NP-PRD a pleasure)
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP teach
(NP her))))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP It)
(SBAR *EXP*-1))
(VP does
n't
(VP matter
(SBAR-1 (WHNP-2 what)
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP do
(NP *T*-2)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP it)
(S *EXP*-3))
(VP behooves
(NP the hospital management)
(S-3 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP do
(NP some
(ADJP mighty careful)
planning))))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP It)
(S *EXP*-2))
(VP 's
(ADJP-PRD (ADJP easier)
(SBAR *ICH*-1))
(S-2 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP get
(ADJP-PRD worse))))
(SBAR-1 than
(FRAG (ADJP-PRD better)))
(PP-LOC in
(NP this game))))
17.1.2 Interrogatives with it-extraposition
Interrogatives with it-extraposition are labeled SQ (see section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure]
for the treatment of SQ). The rest of the sentence is annotated as
described above for the declarative version.
(SQ Is
(NP-SBJ (NP it)
(SBAR *EXP*-1))
(ADJP-PRD possible)
(SBAR-1 that
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP killed
(NP her))))
?)
17.1.3 Inversion with it-extraposition
Extraposition may occur within SINV (see section 1 [Overview of Basic
Clause Structure] for the treatment of
SINV):
(SINV (PP-LOC Under
(NP no circumstances))
would
(NP-SBJ (NP it)
(S *EXP*-1))
(ADVP-TMP ever)
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD acceptable)
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP permit
(NP (NP the termination)
(PP of
(NP the human race))))))))
17.1.4 Exclamatives with it-extraposition
Exlamatives that contain it-extraposition are labeled SBAR, and
contain the wh-phrase, followed by the expletive subject, followed
by be, followed by a coindexed trace in the position of the gap,
followed by the extraposed clause (e.g., How bizarre / it / is / that
they eat bugs!).
(SBAR (WHADJP-1 How bizarre)
(S (NP-SBJ (NP it)
(SBAR *EXP*-2))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD *T*-1)
(SBAR-2 that
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP eat
(NP bugs))))))
!)
17.1.5 Ambiguity with it-extraposition
A possible ambiguity arises when the final clause is headed by for.
Infinitival with overt subject.
In some cases, the entire for clause is extraposed and therefore can be fronted to replace it (e.g., It was impossible for anyone to escape →
For anyone to escape was impossible). Treating the entire for clause as extraposed represents the default option.
(S (NP-SBJ (NP It)
(SBAR *EXP*-1))
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD impossible)
(SBAR-1 for
(S (NP-SBJ anyone)
(VP to
(VP escape))))))
PP + infinitival.
In other cases, it is only the infinitive
(with null subject) that is extraposed and for heads an independent
PP (e.g., It is difficult for Willie to resist chocolate
→ To resist chocolate is difficult for Willie
¬ → *For Willie to resist chocolate is difficult).
(S (NP-SBJ (NP It)
(S *EXP*-2))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD difficult)
(PP for
(NP Willie))
(S-2 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP resist
(NP chocolate))))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP It)
(S *EXP*-1))
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD easy)
(PP for
(NP the psalmist))
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP sing
(NP them)
(PP-TMP in
(NP his day)))))))
17.1.6 Gapping with it-extraposition
Gapping across sentences with it-extraposition proceeds in the same
way as with other instances of gapping.
(S (S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP (VP is
(ADJP-PRD-1 nice)
(PP for
(NP teachers))
(S-2 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP think
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ-3 they)
(VP are
(VP engaged
(NP *-3)
(PP-CLR in
``
(NP personality development)
'')))))))))
and
(VP (ADVP-PRD=1 even nicer)
(S=2 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP minimize
(NP (NP those irksome tests)
(PP with
(NP (ADJP often disappointing)
results))))))))))
17.1.7 It-extraposition in small clauses
When it-extraposition occurs from the subject position of a small
clause, it is treated in a manner similar to extraposition of the clausal
subject, as described in section 17.1.1, with the
exception that in this case the extraposed clause is put at S-level rather
than VP-level (which in the small clause does not exist). For example:
I find it annoying that you constantly interrupt me when I am
speaking → I find that you constantly interrupt me when
I am speaking annoying.
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP find
(S (NP-SBJ (NP it)
(SBAR *EXP*-1))
(ADJP-PRD annoying)
(SBAR-1 that
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(ADVP-TMP constantly)
(VP interrupt
(NP me)
(SBAR-TMP (WHADVP-2 when)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP am
(VP speaking
(ADVP-TMP *T*-2)))))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ We)
(VP made
(S (NP-SBJ (NP it)
(S *EXP*-1))
(NP-PRD our objective)
(S-1 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP finish
(NP the projects)
(PP-MNR in
(NP a timely fashion))))))))
17.2 It-extraposition from object position
There is no established policy for the annotation of these constructions,
and it-extraposition from object position is quite rare in the
corpus. This is how one example was done:
(S But
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP liked
(NP it)
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP 'd
(VP brought
(NP their children)))))))
Most other cases of putative object it-extraposition are analyzed
in the corpus as extraposition from the subject position of a small clause
(see section 17.1.7).
18 Subject-Raising Predicates
Subject-raising predicates are those wherein the subject of an embedded
clause can (optionally) be raised to the subject position of the matrix
clause (e.g., It appears that John is sick → John(i)
appears PRO(i) to be sick). This section describes the annotation of unraised raising predicates only. Raised subject-raising predicates
are discussed in section 14 [Infinitives].
The that clause is bracketed as a complement of the subject-raising
verb or adjective, and the it in subject position is labeled -SBJ.
18.1 Active verbs
The subject-raising verbs include appear, be, chance, happen, seem,
etc.
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP seems
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP was
(VP lying))))))
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP may
(VP be
(SBAR-PRD that
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD wrong)))))))
18.2 Passive verbs
The subject-raising passive verbs include add, assume, believe, claim,
decide, find, grant, hope, know, observe, prove, remember, say, see, show,
suggest, etc. Unlike with it-extraposition, here the that
clause is an argument of the verb even though it can be fronted. There is
thus no passive trace. Note that in their active forms all of these verbs
take a that clause complement, even without the additional NP
complement.
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP was
(ADVP-MNR widely)
(VP believed
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ the world)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD flat)))))))
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP has
(VP been
(VP claimed
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ money)
(VP is
(NP-PRD (NP the root)
(PP of
(NP all evil))))))))))
A note on variation: these are easy to confuse with it-extraposition, and some examples in the corpus are bracketed as
extraposition, with a passive trace.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP It)
(SBAR *EXP*-2))
(VP was
(ADVP-MNR widely)
(VP believed
(NP *-1)
(SBAR-2 that
(S (NP-SBJ the world)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD flat)))))))
18.3 Adjectives
The subject-raising adjectives include certain, likely, etc. (See
section 14 [Infinitives] for more about this construction and its raised
variant.) Note that these also are easily confused with it-extraposition.
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD likely
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP will
(VP be
(PP-PRD on
(NP time)))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD certain
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP will
(VP win)))))))
18.4 Subject-raising predicates in small clauses
Subject-raising predicates may also appear in small clauses.
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP Let
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP be
(VP granted
(ADVP then)
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP the theological differences)
(PP-LOC in
(NP this area))
(PP between
(NP (NP Protestants)
and
(NP Roman Catholics))))
(VP appear
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD irreconcilable))))))))))))
18.5 Inversion with subject-raising predicates
The following are examples of subject-raising predicates in SINV:
(SINV (ADVP-LOC Nowhere)
is
(NP-SBJ it)
(VP proven
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ-1 you)
(VP have
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD rich))))
(S-PRP (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD happy)))))))))
(SINV (PP in
(NP no way))
is
(NP-SBJ it)
(ADJP-PRD likely
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP will
(VP solve
(NP (NP all the problems)
(PP of
(NP syntax)))))))))
19 Weather it and Referential it
Weather it and referential it receive no special annotation.
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP 's
(VP raining)))
Instances of referential it include uses such as the following:
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP 'll
(ADVP probably)
(VP be
(NP-TMP-PRD (QP at least an)
hour
(QP or two))
(SBAR-TMP before
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP can
(VP check
(ADVP-CLR back)
(PP-CLR with
(NP you)))))))))
(S (NP-SBJ It)
(VP is
(NP-PRD (NP time)
(SBAR (WHADVP-2 0)
for
(S (NP-SBJ you)
(VP to
(VP go
(ADVP-TMP *T*-2))))))))
20 Existential there
Note that the ATIS sample included in this release uses an extraposition
treatment of these cases, while the WSJ corpus does not.
20.1 ATIS bracketing
This construction appears only in questions in the ATIS sample.
(SQ Are
(NP-SBJ (NP there)
(NP *EXP*-1))
(NP-1 (NP any flights)
(VP arriving
(PP-TMP after
(NP eleven a.m)))))
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 (WHADJP How many) stops)
(SQ are
(NP-SBJ (NP there)
(NP *EXP*-2))
(NP-2 *T*-1)))
(SBARQ (WHNP-1 (WHNP What flights)
(PP-DIR *ICH*-3)
(PP-DIR *ICH*-4)
(PP-TMP *ICH*-5))
(SQ are
(NP-SBJ (NP there)
(NP *EXP*-2))
(NP-2 *T*-1)
(PP-DIR-3 from
(NP Milwaukee))
(PP-DIR-4 to
(NP Phoenix))
(PP-TMP-5 on
(NP Saturday))))
20.2 WSJ bracketing
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP is
(NP-PRD a lovely statue)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the garden))))
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP was
(NP-PRD a sudden noise))
.)
(SQ Are
(NP-SBJ there)
(NP-PRD (NP any flights)
(VP arriving
(PP-TMP after
(NP eleven a.m)))))
-
With a relative clause.
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP is
(NP-PRD (NP nothing)
(SBAR (WHNP-6 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP eat
(NP *T*-6)))))))
.)
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP has
(VP been
(NP-PRD (NP a lot)
(VP accomplished
(NP *)
(NP-TMP today))))))
- With a clausal complement or adjunct.
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP is
(NP-PRD no use)
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ-1 *)
(VP trying
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP `` Explain ''
(PP-DIR to
(NP a 2-year-old)))))))))
(S (ADVP-TMP (NP A few weeks)
ago)
,
(NP-SBJ I)
(VP read
(PP-LOC in
(NP the Bulletin))
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ-1 there)
(VP were
(S (NP-SBJ-224 *-1)
(VP to
(VP be
(VP given
(NP *-224)))))
(NP-PRD Chinese classes)
(PP-LOC in
(NP Cranston)))))))
21 Though-Clefts
Though-clefts are considered a special case of topicalization, and so
are bracketed as follows. (See section 4 [Null Elements] for more details.)
(S (SBAR-ADV (VP-TPC-2 Shout
(PP-CLR at
(NP Eichmann)))
though
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP might
(VP *T*-2))))
,
(NP-SBJ the Prosecutor)
(VP could
not
(VP establish...)))
(S (SBAR-ADV (ADJP-PRD-TPC-1 Airless and dingy)
though
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD *T*-1))))
,
(NP-SBJ the attic)
(VP represented
(NP luxury)))
22 Comparatives
This section describes comparative structures and related structures.
Comparatives represent a complex and difficult problem, and the bracketing
policy for comparatives was never finalized. As a result, variation in
analysis is more prevalent for comparatives than for simpler constructions.
22.1 Basic tools for bracketing the than/that/as-phrase
The than, that, or as is bracketed as either a PP or an
SBAR, and a certain amount of variation exists in the choice of PP or SBAR.
SBAR is used when the rest of the than/that/as-phrase is a tensed
sentence, or when it contains a subject. PP is in general used when the
rest of the than/that/as-phrase is a single constituent. There is a
tendency to use SBAR when the rest of the than/that/as-phrase is a VP
or other predicate tagged -PRD (even if it is a single word) and when the
rest of the phrase is dominated by FRAG, though PP may also be used.
The rest of the than/that/as-phrase after the than, that or as is most often bracketed simply with the bracket labels
and function tags appropriate for the constituent. It may be dominated by
FRAG, particularly if more than one constituent is involved or if the rest
of the phrase is a VP or other predicate (but not an S).
The null element *?* is used to indicated missing constituents in the
predicate of the than/that/as-phrase. (See section 4 [Null Elements] for a more
complete description of the uses of *?*.) The null element *?* has the
bracket label that the missing constituent would have if present (see
section 22.5).
Throughout this section on comparatives, alternate bracketings are shown
when they seem particularly likely or common (i.e., not all of the possible
variants are shown for each example).
A schematic for possible bracketings follows:
-
PP or SBAR for the than, that or as.
(PP than/as
(xP rest of phrase))
OR:
(SBAR than/that/as
(S rest of phrase))
- For the rest of the phrase, after the than, that or as:
-
Appropriate bracket label and function tags.
(PP than
(NP ice cream))
OR:
(SBAR as
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP was)))
- FRAG may dominate.
(PP as
(FRAG (ADJP possible)))
OR:
(SBAR as
(FRAG (ADJP-PRD possible)))
- With predicates, the null element *?* may be used for missing parts of
the predicate.
(SBAR as
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD *?*))))
22.2 Adjunction
The default for most comparative constructions is to Chomsky-adjoin
the than/that/as-phrase to the comparative phrase (ADJP, ADVP, NP).
If the comparative phrase is an NP modifier, the than/that/as-phrase
is adjoined to the entire NP rather than to the modifier.
Examples of several common constructions follow:
-
AS
AS — AS
(ADJP (ADJP as mysterious)
(PP as
(NP (NP a tiny hole)
(PP-LOC in
(NP my skin)))))
AS MUCH — AS —
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP might not
(VP mean
(NP (NP as much)
(SBAR as
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP means
(PP to
(NP us)))))))))
NOT SO MUCH — AS —
(NP (NP not
(ADVP so much)
a search)
(PP for
(NP truth))
(PP as
(PP for
(NP certainty))))
AS [ADJP] A [NP/SBAR] AS
(NP (NP (ADJP as good) a year)
(PP as
(NP 1989)))
- THAN
—ER THAN
(ADJP (ADJP friendlier)
(PP than
(NP (NP a dog)
(PP on
(NP a picnic)))))
MORE THAN
(ADJP (ADJP more interesting)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP thought))))
OR:
(ADJP (ADJP more interesting)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP thought
(S *?*)))))
- THAT
SO — THAT
(ADJP (ADJP so friendly)
(SBAR that...))
(ADVP (ADVP so slowly)
(SBAR that...))
SO — A — THAT
(NP (NP so playful a kitten)
(SBAR that...))
SUCH A — THAT
(NP (NP such a playful kitten)
(SBAR that...))
22.3 Items intervening between the comparative phrase and the than/that/as-phrase
22.3.1 Simple adjunction
The than/that/as-phrase is adjoined as usual to the comparative
phrase if the intervening item is another modifier of the same comparative
phrase (i.e., not attached at a higher level).
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP 's
(NP-PRD (NP more reading and instruction)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ-2 *T*-1)
(VP to
(VP be
(VP heard
(NP *-2)
(PP-LOC on
(NP discs)))))))
(PP than
(ADVP-TMP ever before))))
.)
22.3.2 *ICH*-attachment
If the intervening item is attached at a higher level, the than/that/as-phrase is *ICH*-attached (and the *ICH* null element
adjoined) to the comparative phrase.
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP might not
(VP mean
(NP (NP as much)
(SBAR *ICH*-3))
(PP to
(NP German banking))
(SBAR-3 as
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP means
(PP to
(NP us)))))))
. '')
( (S (NP-SBJ (NP More industrial acreage)
(PP *ICH*-1))
(VP lies
(ADVP-CLR vacant)
(PP-LOC in
(NP St. Clair county))
(PP-1 than
(PP-LOC in
(NP (NP any other jurisdiction)
(PP-LOC in
(NP the St. Louis area))))))
.))
22.4 Than/as-phrase containing only one constituent
In most cases, when the than/as-phrase contains only one
constituent, the than or as is bracketed as a PP with the
single constituent as its complement.
However, when the single constituent is a predicate (i.e., a VP or -PRD),
the than or as is often bracketed as an SBAR. The
predicate may be immediately dominated by FRAG or S with a null * subject.
- with NP
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP like
(NP cake)
(ADVP (ADVP more)
(PP than
(NP ice cream)))))
- with PP
( (S (NP-TMP Last year)
,
(NP-SBJ the average broker)
(VP earned
(NP (NP $ 71,309 *U*)
,
(ADJP (ADJP (NP 24 %)
lower)
(PP than
(PP-TMP in
(NP 1987))))))
.))
OR:
(ADJP (ADJP (NP 24 %) lower)
(PP than
(FRAG (PP-TMP in
(NP 1987)))))
- with VP
( (S (NP-SBJ visitors)
(VP have
(NP (NP more)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP do
(NP *T*-1)))))
(PP than
(VP ski))))
.))
OR:
(NP (NP more)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP do
(NP *T*-1)))))
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP ski))))
OR:
(NP (NP more)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP do
(NP *T*-1)))))
(SBAR than
(FRAG (VP ski))))
OR:
(NP (NP more)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP do
(NP *T*-1)))))
(PP than
(FRAG (VP ski))))
- with -PRD
( (S ``
(NP-SBJ (NP It)
(S *EXP*-2))
(VP 's
(ADJP-PRD (ADJP easier)
(SBAR *ICH*-1))
(S-2 (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP get
(ADJP-PRD worse))))
(SBAR-1 than
(FRAG (ADJP-PRD better))))
. ''))
- with expected
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The total)
(PP of
(NP (NP 18 deaths)
(PP from
(NP (NP malignant mesothelioma)
,
(NP lung cancer)
and
(NP asbestosis))))))
(VP was
(ADJP-PRD (ADJP far higher)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP expected)))))
.)
OR:
(ADJP-PRD (ADJP far higher)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ-1 *)
(VP expected
(NP *-1)))))
OR:
(SBAR than
(FRAG (VP expected)))
NOTE: if expected occurs in a fleshed-out sentence, a *?* is likely
to be used, as in:
(NP (NP fiscal fourthquarter earnings)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 that)
(S (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP were
(ADJP-PRD (ADJP better)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ analysts)
(VP had
(VP expected
(S *?*))))))))))
- with possible, usual, etc.
Usually done as a PP with an ADJP complement:
(NP (NP more)
(PP than
(ADJP usual)))
(NP (NP as many
(ADJP solidly minority)
districts)
(PP as
(ADJP possible)))
Rarely done as SBAR:
(NP (NP as many
(ADJP solidly minority)
districts)
(SBAR as
(FRAG (ADJP-PRD possible))))
22.5 More complicated than/as-phrases — use of *?*
When the than/as-phrase contains both a subject and a portion of a
predicate, these constituents form the basis of an S, and the missing
elements (i.e., the elements which are interpreted but not realized) are
often represented by *?*. (See section 4 [Null Elements] for more details
on *?*.)
In the following list, the likelihood of there being a *?* goes from
greatest to least.
- subject / copular verb / missing predicate
(most likely use for *?*)
In this example, the missing predicate is a PP, assumed to be something
like of military value.
( (S (NP-SBJ Laos)
(VP is
(PP-PRD of
(NP (NP (ADJP (ADVP no more)
purely military)
value)
(SBAR *ICH*-2)))
(PP to
(NP (NP Moscow)
(NP itself)))
(SBAR-2 than
(S (NP-SBJ it)
(VP is
(PP-PRD *?*)
(PP to
(NP Washington))))))
.))
- subject / other main verb / missing direct object
( (S (NP-SBJ the Controller)
(VP will
(VP have
(NP (NP the opportunity)
(PP for
(NP (NP greater usefulness)
(PP to
(NP good government))
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP has
(NP *?*)
(ADVP-TMP now)))))))))
.))
- subject / auxiliary / missing main verb
(S (NP-SBJ The submission)
(VP would
(VP place
(NP the issues)
(PP-LOC-CLR before
(NP the court))
(ADVP (ADVP more readily)
(SBAR than
(SINV would
(NP-SBJ (NP discussion)
(PP in
(NP the abstract)))
(VP *?*))))))
.)
- subject / main verb / missing clausal complement
(S (NP-SBJ the steel strike)
(VP lasted
(ADVP-TMP (ADVP much longer)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP anticipated
(SBAR 0
(S *?*)))))))
.)
OR:
(S (NP-SBJ the steel strike)
(VP lasted
(ADVP-TMP (ADVP much longer)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP anticipated
(SBAR *?*))))))
.)
- subject / auxiliary / auxiliary replaces main verb
(S (NP-SBJ Bill)
(VP ate
(NP (NP more hotdogs)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ Mary)
(VP did
(VP *?*
(NP-TMP yesterday)))))))
.)
( (S (NP-SBJ Bill)
(VP eats
(NP (NP more hotdogs)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ Mary)
(VP does
(VP *?*))))))
.))
OR:
( (S (NP-SBJ Bill)
(VP eats
(NP (NP more hotdogs)
(SBAR than
(S (NP-SBJ Mary)
(VP does)))))
.))
22.6 Superlative + relative clause
Superlatives with relative clauses are bracketed using the standard
bracketing for an NP with a relative clause modifying it. There is no
comparative structure shown.
(S (NP-SBJ He)
(VP was
(ADVP altogether)
(NP-PRD (NP the (ADJP most combustible looking) man)
(SBAR (WHNP-1 0)
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(ADVP-TMP ever)
(VP saw
(NP *T*-1)))))))
23 “Financialspeak” conventions
This section covers some of the constructions that are specific to texts
about financial happenings (hereafter, referred to as “Financialspeak”).
Note that some of the treatments described below are not found in any
context outside Financialspeak.
23.1 Salient features of Financialspeak text
Annotators determine intuitively whether a particular set of tokens is
Financialspeak. Text that annotators consider to be Financialspeak tends
to have one or more of the following characteristics.
-
It contains verbs like rise, grow, increase, decrease, drop, fall,
jump, close, finish, etc.
- the entire file is a list of rising and falling stock or bond prices
- rising and falling monies
- repetitious sentence structures, centering around the above verbs
- it's talking about financial stuff, but you don't really know what's
going on
- there's no sensible way to interpret the sentence other than as
Financialspeak.
Though the Treebank has no precise way of delimiting Financialspeak, there
is a reasonable degree of agreement among annotators about when they are
bracketing Financialspeak.
23.2 Bracketing conventions
23.2.1 Bracketing of up/down-phrases in VP
-
Up/down-phrases are bracketed ADVP-CLR when they immediately
follow the Financialspeak verbs listed above (particularly closed,
settled and finished) and when there are no other constituents. The
quantificational NP (i.e., 5 points) is attached as a complement of
up or down.
(S (NP-SBJ IBM)
(VP closed
(ADVP-CLR up
(NP 5 points))))
(S (NP-SBJ IBM)
(VP finished
(ADVP-CLR down
(NP 5 points))))
After copular verbs, up/down-phrases are labeled -PRD.
(S (NP-SBJ IBM)
(VP was
(ADVP-PRD up
(NP 5 points))))
Non-up/down-phrases which are interpreted as describing the subject in
some way, and which follow non-copular verbs, may be interpreted as
secondary predication, as follows.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 IBM)
(VP finished
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *-1)
(ADJP-PRD unchanged)))
.)
- If the VP contains an up/down-phrase followed by another
modifier, there is no defined policy dictating which item(s) receive -CLR.
The corpus may contain the following bracketings.
(S (NP-SBJ Copper)
(VP finished
(ADVP-CLR down
(NP 4.5 cents))
,
(PP-CLR at
(NP (NP $ 1.2345 *U*)
(NP-ADV a pound))))
.)
(S (NP-SBJ Copper)
(VP finished
(ADVP-CLR down
(NP 4.5 cents))
,
(PP at
(NP (NP $ 1.2345 *U*)
(NP-ADV a pound))))
.)
Note that constructions like 4.5 cents lower are treated the
same as up/down-phrases.
(S (NP-SBJ Copper)
(VP finished
(ADVP-CLR (NP 4.5 cents)
lower)
,
(PP-CLR at
(NP (NP $ 1.2345 *U*)
(NP-ADV a pound))))
.)
- If an item intervenes between an up/down-phrase and the
verb, and the up/down-phrase is a child of VP (see the next section
for “Attachment”), the up/down-phrase does not receive -CLR.
(S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP Volume)
(PP-LOC on
(NP the first section)))
(VP was
(VP estimated
(NP *-1)
(PP-CLR at
(NP (QP 1 billion) shares))
,
(ADVP up
(PP from
(NP (QP 914 million))
(NP-TMP Tuesday))))))
- Attachment: child of VP versus NP adjunct
When items intervene between an up/down-phrase and the verb, the
up/down-phrase is attached at VP level if it is possible to say:
“[SBJ] [to be] [ADVP]”. As mentioned in the preceding section, the up/down phrase does not receive -CLR.
(S (NP-SBJ Sales)
(VP were
(NP-PRD (QP $ 1.25 billion) *U*)
,
(ADVP down
(PP from
(NP (QP $ 1.36 billion) *U*)
(PP-TMP in
(NP the 1988 quarter))))))
(S (NP-SBJ IBM)
(VP rose
(PP-DIR to
(NP 101))
,
(ADVP up
(NP 3 %))))
(S (NP-SBJ The Financial Times 100-share index)
(VP finished
(PP-CLR at
(NP 2161.9))
,
(ADVP up
(NP 12.6 points))))
Otherwise, (i.e., if one can't say “[SBJ] [to be] [ADVP]”), the up/down-phrase is attached to the NP.
(*The U.S. is up 2 billion from a year ago.)
(S (NP-SBJ The U.S.)
(VP imported
(NP (NP (QP 6 billion) barrels)
(PP of
(NP oil))
(ADVP *ICH*-1))
(NP-TMP this year)
,
(ADVP-1 up
(NP (QP 2 billion))
(PP from
(ADVP-TMP (NP a year)
ago)))))
23.2.2 -CLR on PPs associated with sold, bought, estimate,
priced
(S (NP-SBJ-1 The Water Works)
(VP was
(VP sold
(NP *-1)
(PP-CLR for
(NP $500)))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 500 shares)
(VP were
(VP bought
(NP *-1)
(PP-CLR from
(NP the unsuspecting old lady)))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP PAFA's)
stock)
(VP sold
(PP-CLR at
(NP (NP $ 17 *U*)
(NP-ADV a share)))))
(S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP convertible debentures)
(PP of
(NP AB&C)))
(VP were
(VP priced
(NP-2 *-1)
(PP-CLR at
(NP $ 400 *U*))
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP yield
(NP 8%)))))))
23.2.3 PP-DIR and double complements
- The prepositions to and from are labeled PP-DIR when
they are complements of a Financialspeak verb.
- Financialspeak to and from are analyzed as optionally
taking two complements: a range and a time. The time will always
be tagged -TMP, and the range will have no dash tag. The possibilities are
-
to/from range, time
- to/from range
- to/from time
- Both range and time will be bracketed as complements
of the preposition (i.e., attached at the same level, as children of the
PP).
- Examples:
-
range
(S (NP-SBJ IBM)
(VP rose
(NP-EXT 3 %)
(PP-DIR to
(NP (QP 101 1/2)))))
- time
(S (NP-SBJ (NP The
(ADJP West German)
machinery and plant equipment industry 's)
orders)
(VP rose
(NP-EXT an inflation-adjusted 1 %)
(PP-TMP in
(NP September))
(PP-DIR from
(NP-TMP a year earlier))))
- range, time
( (S (NP-SBJ Annual inflation)
(VP rose
(PP-DIR to
(NP 3.64 %)
(PP-TMP in
(NP October)))
(PP-DIR from
(NP 3.55 %)
(PP-TMP in
(NP September))))
.))
- Miscellaneous note:
Only in Financialspeak, and only when the “mother PP” is a PP-DIR,
can temporal modifiers be put inside a PP as in this example:
(S (NP-SBJ unconsolidated pretax profit)
(VP increased
(NP-EXT 70 %)
(PP-DIR to
(NP (QP 12.12 billion) yen))
(PP-TMP in
(NP (NP the first half)
(VP ended
(NP-TMP Sept. 30))))
,
(PP-DIR from
(NP (QP 7.12 billion) yen)
(ADVP-TMP (NP a year)
ago))))
Otherwise, -TMP things go at S or VP level:
(S (PP-LOC In
(NP active trading))
(PP-TMP on
(NP Tuesday))
,
(NP-SBJ IBM)
(VP vanished))
(S (NP-SBJ Bats)
(VP invaded
(NP my apartment)
(PP-TMP at
(NP midnight))
(NP-TMP Friday)))
23.3 Financialspeak bracketing conventions covered elsewhere in this
manual:
For information about QPs, see section 11 [Modification of NP].
For information about -EXT, see section 2 [Notation].
24 Numbered Lists
The bracketings described below for lists that include list item markers
also generalize somewhat to similarly long lists that lack item markers.
-
LST
Letters and numerals which identify items in a list, and their surrounding
punctuation, are labeled LST:
(LST -LRB-
1
-RRB-)
- List item markers include:
1, 2, 3 a, b, c
i, ii, iii one, two, three
- The list item marker is made a child of the constituent it precedes.
- When the enumerated items are listed in one sentence, they are
conjoined:
( (S (NP-SBJ-1 It)
(VP was
(VP used
(NP *-1)
(S-CLR (NP-SBJ *)
(VP (VP (LST -LRB-
1
-RRB-)
to
(VP investigate
(NP wave behavior)))
,
(VP (LST -LRB-
2
-RRB-)
to
(VP estimate
(NP the wave energy)))
,
and
(VP (LST -LRB-
3
-RRB-)
forecast
(NP coastal changes))))))
.))
- When the enumerated items occur in separate sentences (i.e. each list
item ends with a period or some other kind of final punctuation), treat the
colon as final punctuation and place each list item in its own set of empty
outer parentheses:
( (S (NP-SBJ The aged care plan)
(VP carries
(NP these benefits)
(PP for
(NP (NP persons)
(PP over
(NP 65)))))
:))
( (NP (LST 1)
(NP Full payment)
(PP of
(NP (NP hospital bills)
(PP for
(NP (NP stays)
(NP (QP up to 90) days)))))
.))
( (NP (LST 2)
(NP Full payment)
(PP of
(NP nursing home bills))
(PP-TMP for
(NP (NP (QP up to 180) days)
(PP-TMP following
(NP (NP discharge)
(PP from
(NP a hospital))))))
.))
( (NP (LST 3)
(NP Hospital outpatient clinic diagnostic service)
(PP for
(NP (NP all costs)
(PP in
(NP (NP excess)
(PP of
(NP (NP $ 20)
(NP-ADV a patient)))))))
.))
- Lists in apposition:
( (PP-PRP for
(NP (NP several reasons)
:
(NP (NP (LST 1)
(NP (NP Broglio 's)
(NX (NX 4-0 won-lost record)
and
(NX 1.24 earned-run mark)))
(PP against
(NP Pittsburgh))
(ADVP-TMP (NP a year)
ago))
;
(NP (LST 2)
The desire
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP give
(NP Broglio)
(NP (NP (ADJP as many)
starts)
(PP as
(ADJP possible)))))))
;
(NP (LST 3)
(NP (NP The Redbirds ')
disheartening 11-7 collapse)
(PP against
(NP the Phillies))
(NP-TMP Sunday))))))
The below contains an example of a non-numbered list. Treatment is similar
to that for numbered lists; the list items are adjoined if not separated by
final punctuation, and the adjoined list is in turn adjoined to the
introducing phrase.
In this case, the introducing phrase is not adjacent to the list, so the
list (but not the separating colon) is *ICH*-attached. Finally, the
entire list is grouped under NP because -TTL implies -NOM and multiples
-NOMs are adjoined under NP.
( (S (NP-SBJ-1 (NP 3 books)
(NP *ICH*-2))
(VP are
(VP recommended
(NP *-1)
(PP-MNR with
(NP gusto))
:
(NP-2 (NP-TTL Crime and Punishment)
,
(S-TTL (NP-SBJ One)
(VP Flew
(PP Over
(NP (NP the Cuckoo 's)
Nest))))
and
(NP-TTL (NP The House)
(PP-LOC at
(NP Pooh Corner))))))
.))
25 Correlative the-Clauses
Treatment of proportional clauses introduced by the fronted correlative
the...the is based upon the following schematic bracketing:
(S (SBAR-ADV (X the sooner)
(S our vans hit the road each morning))
,
(X the easier)
it is for us to fulfill that obligation
.)
Annotators were to try to approximate the above bracketing as best they
could for the...the constructions encountered in the WSJ corpus.
The...the policy was not a high priority for the Treebank, due to the
rarity and irregular nature of these constructions, so a more specific
policy does not exist.
The following examples show how some sentences from the corpus might
have been bracketed:
( (S (SBAR-ADV (X The sooner)
(S (NP-SBJ our vans)
(VP hit
(NP the road)
(NP-TMP each morning))))
,
(X the easier)
(NP-SBJ (NP it)
(SBAR *EXP*-1))
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD *?*)
(SBAR-1 for
(S (NP-SBJ us)
(VP to
(VP fulfill
(NP that obligation))))))
.))
(S (SBAR-ADV (X the more)
(S (NP-SBJ a scandal)
(VP has
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP do
(PP-CLR with
(NP (NP (NP a congressman 's)
duties)
(PP as
(NP a congressman))))))))))
,
(X the
(ADJP less likely))
(NP-SBJ it)
(VP is
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP to
(VP catch
(NP (NP the fancy)
(PP of
(NP a network))))))))
(S (SBAR-ADV (X the more)
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP muzzles
(NP his colleagues))))
,
(X the more)
(NP-SBJ leaks)
(VP will
(VP pop
(PRT up)
(PP-LOC all around
(NP Washington)))))
( (S ``
(SBAR-ADV (X The less)
(S (NP-SBJ they)
(VP know
(NP *?*))))
,
(X the easier)
(NP-SBJ it)
(VP is
(PP for
(NP us)))
.))
(S (SBAR-ADV (X The more)
(S (NP-SBJ we)
(VP think
(PP-CLR about
(NP it)))))
,
(X the more)
(NP-SBJ we)
(VP suspect
(SBAR 0
(S (NP-SBJ Mr. Brady)
(VP does
(ADVP indeed)
(VP have
(NP enough power)
(SBAR-LOC (WHADVP-1 where)
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(ADVP-TMP already)
(VP is
(ADVP-LOC-PRD *T*-1)))))))))
.)
(S (NP-SBJ A trader)
(VP said
(SBAR that
(X (SBAR-ADV (X the more)
(S (NP-SBJ an issue)
(VP gained
(NP *?*)
(ADVP-TMP recently))))
,
(X the sharper)
(NP (NP the loss)
(VP sustained
(NP *)
(NP-TMP Wednesday))))))
.)
( (S (SBAR-ADV (X The more factories and robots)
(S (NP-SBJ Japanese manufacturers)
(VP add
(NP *?*))))
,
(S (X the more)
(NP-SBJ-1 they)
(VP will
(VP be
(ADJP-PRD able
(S (NP-SBJ *-1)
(VP to
(VP export
(NP *?*))))))))
, and
(S (X the less)
(NP-SBJ-2 their domestic customers)
(VP will
(VP need
(S (NP-SBJ *-2)
(VP to
(VP import
(NP *?*)))))))
.))
26 Orphans
This section includes miscellaneous constructions that have not found a home under other headings, and other
oddities.
26.1 List of miscellaneous phrases
all about:
(S (PP-TMP from
(NP childhood))
(NP-SBJ he)
(VP had
(VP known
(PP-CLR all about
(NP knives)))))
as of:
(PP-TMP as
(PP of
(NP the first)))
come (as in “come spring cleaning...”): PP
(S (NP-SBJ You)
(VP can
(VP hope
(PP against
(NP hope))
(SBAR that
(S (PP-TMP come
(NP spring cleaning))
,
(NP-SBJ your fair-weather friends)
(VP will))))))
effective:
The word effective occasionally introduces an adverbial with a time
complement, as in “The chairman is resigning effective Monday.”
These are fairly rare, so no uniform treatment exists.
Some are analyzed as “floating participials”:
(S (NP-SBJ-2 he)
(VP is
(VP quitting
(S-ADV (NP-SBJ *)
(ADJP-PRD effective
(NP-TMP Dec. 31))))))
while others are simply ADJP, often with a -ADV or -TMP tag:
(S (NP-SBJ-34 Columbia Pictures Entertainment Inc.)
(VP was
(VP dropped
(NP *-34)
,
(ADJP-ADV effective
(NP-TMP today))
,
(PP-DIR from
(NP the recreational products group)))))
half (see also the section on “Multipliers” in section 11 [Modification of NP]):
“...using half whole wheat and half white flour”
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP using
(NP (NP half whole wheat
(NX *RNR*-1))
and
(NP half white
(NX *RNR*-1))
(NX-1 flour))))
no doubt:
- as adverb
(S (NP-SBJ He)
(NP-ADV no doubt)
(VP will
(VP go)))
(S (NP-SBJ He)
(VP 'll
(NP-ADV no doubt)
(VP go)))
- as noun
(S (NP-SBJ There)
(VP 's
(NP-PRD no doubt
(SBAR that
(S (NP-SBJ he)
(VP 'll
(VP go)))))))
no matter:
(S (PP-LOC In
(NP the stands))
(NP-SBJ he)
(VP is
(ADJP-PRD lonely and lost)
,
(ADVP no matter
(SBAR (WHNP-1 how many)
(S (NP *T*-1)
(VP are
(PP-LOC-PRD about
(NP him))))))))
percent:
Percent is simply a flat NP, whether or not it is written with a
space:
(NP 15 percent)
(NP 15 per cent)
regardless of:
(ADVP regardless
(PP of ...))
though:
- clefted: see section 21 [Though-clefts] and section 4 [Null Elements] for more on though-clefts.
- fronted: SBAR-ADV
(SBAR-ADV Though (FRAG (ADJP limited)))
- not fronted: conjunction
(NP (NP the
(ADJP well-defined
though
limited)
range)
(PP of
(NP motifs)))
using:
(VP estimated
(S-MNR (NP *)
(VP using)))
worth:
- with complement: ADJP
Note that some instances of this use of worth are labeled PP-PRD, as
in (b); however the use of ADJP-PRD, as in (a), predominates.
(a) (S (PP With
(NP (NP respect)
(PP to
(NP this view))))
,
(NP-SBJ two points)
(VP are
(ADJP-PRD worth
(S (NP-SBJ *)
(VP making)))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP the results)
,
(ADJP however general)
,)
(VP are
(ADJP-PRD worth
(NP the search))))
(b) (S (PP With
(NP (NP respect)
(PP to
(NP this view))))
,
(NP-SBJ two points)
(VP are
(PP-PRD worth
(S-NOM (NP-SBJ *)
(VP making)))))
(S (NP-SBJ (NP the results)
,
(ADJP however general)
,)
(VP are
(PP-PRD worth
(NP the search))))
- dollars worth: NP
There is considerable variation, but here is a common way of analyzing
expressions like five dollars worth:
(VP issue
(NP (NP (ADJP (QP some $ 3 million to $ 4 million) *U*)
worth)
(PP of
(NP Rural Roads Authority bonds))))
26.2 Flat multi-word ADVPs and PPs
-
The following are annotated as flat ADVPs:
all but
at all
at best
at least
at most
more than (...doubled)
Unfortunately, the POS tagging for these is more often (though not always)
compositional: at/IN all/DT. See the POS guidelines [Santorini 1990] for more information.
- The following are annotated as flat PPs:
because of
instead of (may also be CONJP)
rather than (may also be CONJP)
such as
(NP (NP desserts)
(PP such as
(NP (NP ice cream)
and
(NP brownies))))
26.3 Foreign words
There is no special bracket tag for foreign words. They are simply
bracketed according to the annotator's interpretation of their syntactic
function. If the annotator is unable to determine its syntactic function,
the phrase is labeled X. The internal structure of foreign phrases is not
annotated.
( (S (NP-SBJ My favorite)
(VP is
(NP-PRD (NP pie)
(PP a la mode)))
.))
( (S (NP-SBJ The new movie)
(VP is
(NP-PRD a tour de force))
.))
(NP (NP ballooning)
(PP-TMP at
(NP (NP the (ADJP de rigueur) hour)
(PP of
(NP 6 a.m.)))))
26.4 Negation
The negative element not is always left unlabeled and is attached in
accordance with the policy governing the attachment of all adverbials.
See reduced relatives sections in section 13 [Gerunds and Participles] and in section 8 [Shared Complements and
Modifiers] for more
information about negation in those cases.
( (S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP do
not
(VP understand))
.))
( (S (NP-SBJ She)
(VP is
not
(NP-PRD a certified teacher))
.))
( (S (NP-SBJ She)
(VP is
not
(VP listening))
.))
( (S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP am
(VP (VP going
(PP-NOM to (NP that other restaurant)))
and
(VP not
eating
(NP overpriced , overcooked broccoli stalks)
(ADVP-TMP again))))
.))
(S (NP-SBJ I)
(VP am
(VP (VP going (PP to (NP that other restaurant)))
(CONJP but not)
(VP ordering (NP their broccoli))))
.)
References
- [Marcus et al. 1994]
-
Marcus, M., Kim, G., Marcinkiewicz, M.A., MacIntyre, R., Bies, A.,
Ferguson, M., Katz, K. and Schasberger, B., 1994. The Penn Treebank:
Annotating Predicate Argument Structure, in Proceedings of the Human
Language Technology Workshop, March 1994, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc.,
San Francisco, CA.
- [Marcus et al. 1993]
-
Marcus, M., Santorini, B., Marcinkiewicz, M.A., 1993.
Building a large annotated corpus of English: the Penn Treebank.
Computational Linguistics, Vol 19.
- [Quirk et al. 1985]
-
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., and Svartvik, J., 1985.
A comprehensive grammar of the English language, Longman, London.
- [Santorini 1990]
-
Santorini, B., 1990.
Part-of-Speech Tagging Guidelines for the Penn Treebank Project (3rd
Revision), Tech Report MS-CIS-90-47, Linc Lab 178, Department of
Computer and Information Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
Index
-
*, 4.6, 4.6.3
- +, 4.8.7
- ADJP, 2.1.2
- -ADV, 2.2.1, 3
- ADVP, 2.1.2
- AUX, 1, 1
- about to, 1(d)
- absolute with, 10.5
- adjectives, 1.1.4
- adjuncts
- adverbials, 2.2.3
- all about, 26.1
- all but, 1
- along with, 2
- ambiguity
-
benign, 5.2.1
- complex
structural, 5.2.2
- permanent
predictable, 5.2
- apposition, 3(b)
- arguments
- as if, 10.6.2
- as of, 26.1
- as though, 10.6.2
- as
well as, 2
- at all, 1
- at best, 1
- at least, 1
- at most, 1
- attachment
- -BNF, 2.2.3
- because of, 2
- benefactives, 2.2.3
- braces, 1
- bracket labels, 2.1, 2.1.2
- brackets, 1
- by-phrases, 2, 1.2.1
- -CLF, 1.2.7, 2.2.4
- -CLR, 2.2.4
- CONJP, 1.3.1, 2.1.2, 3
- clause types, 1.2
- clefts, 1.2.7, 1.2.7, 16, 21
- coindexing, 2.4, 4.1.2, 4.1.2
- colons, 2, 2
- come..., 26.1
- comparatives, 22, 22.6
- complementation, 1.1.4
- complements, 1.1.4
- conditionals, 1.2.2
- conjunctions
-
coordinating, 1.3.1
- discontinuous, 3
- “quasi-”, 2
- quasi-coordinating, 7.5.2
- subordinating, 10.2
-
bracketing of, 10.6
- modifiers of, 1
- coordination, 1.3.1, 1.3.1, 7, 7.5.3
-
general guidelines, 7.3
- of gerunds/participles, 13.5
- of unlike categories, 7.2
- phrase-level, 7.1.2
- word-level, 7.1.1
- copular verbs, 6, 6.2.2
-
simple copular
complements, 6.1
- simple copular complements, 6.1.4
- correlative the-clauses, 25, 25
- cost, 14.2.5
- -DIR, 2.2.3, 23.2.3
- -DTV, 2.2.2
- dashes, 1
- dates, 11.4, 11.4.1
- dative
shift, 2.2.3
- dative PPs, 2, 2.2.2
- dative shift, 2, 2.2.2
- discontinuous dependency, 3
- ditransitive verbs, 14.2.5
- ditransitives, 1(b)
- do so
constructions, 6.1.3
- *EXP*-attach, 4, 5.5, 5.5
- -EXT, 2.2.3
- effective, 26.1
- ellipses, 3.2.3
- enough, 14.2.3
- existential there, 20, 20.2
- FRAG, 1.2.9, 2.1.2
- “financialspeak”, 23, 23.3
- flat ADVPs, 26.2
- flat PPs, 2
- foreign words, 26.3
- form/function discrepancies, 2.2.1
- free relatives, 9.2.3, 2
- from...to..., 11.3.2
- fronted constituents, 1.3.3, 1.3.3, 1.3.3, 1.3.3, 2.2.2
- function tags, 2, 2.2
- gap coindexing, 1.3.5, 7.4.2
- gapping, 1.3.5, 7.4, 7.4.6
-
at S-level, 7.4.3
- in noun phrases, 7.4.5
- in prepositional phrases, 7.4.4
- intersentential, 1.3.5
- intrasentential, 1.3.5
- *NOT*, 4.7, 4.7.3, 1
- template, 1.3.5, 4.7, 7.4.1
- VP gapping, 7.4.1
- gerunds, 1.2.1, 1.2.1, 13
-
and participles,
distinction betw., 13.1.1
- as complement of SBAR, 1.2.1
- as complement of verb, 1.2.1
- -HLN, 2.2.4
- half, 11.3.5, 26.1
- have problems/difficulty/trouble X-ing, 2
- headlines, 2.2.4
- “heavy shift”, 5.4, 15.5.1
- how come, 1
- hyphens, 3.2.1
- *ICH*-attach, 3, 5.4, 5.4.3
- INTJ, 2.1.2
- identity index, 2.4.1, 4.1.2
- if not, 2
- if-clauses, 1.2.2
- imperatives, 1.2.1, 14.1.2
- in
case, 10.6.2
- in order
to/that/for, 10.6.2
- in that, 10.6.2
- inasmuch as, 10.6.2
- indexing, 4.1.2, 4.1.2
- infinitival relatives, 3, 4.2.2, 14.2.1
- infinitives, 1.2.1, 14, 14.2.5
-
bare, 14.1
- to infinitives, 14.2
-
complements of nouns, 14.2.2
- complements of verbs, 14.2.5
- complements of
adjectives/adverbs, 14.2.3
- infinitival relative
clauses, 14.2.1
- purpose/reason
clauses, 14.2.4
- insofar as, 10.6.2
- instead of, 2, 2
- instrument phrases, 2.2.3
- inversion, 1.2.2, 1.2.2, 1.2.5
- inverted auxiliary, 1.2.5
- it-clefts, 16.1
- it-clefts, 1.2.7, 16.1.4
- it-extraposition, 1.2.8, 17
- it-extraposition, 2, 17.2
-
ambiguity, 17.1.5
- declarative, 17.1.1
- *EXP*-attach, 4, 5.5
- exclamative, 17.1.4
- from object position, 17.2, 17.2
- from subject position, 17.1, 17.1.7
- gapping, 17.1.6
- in small clauses, 17.1.7
- interrogatives, 17.1.2
- inversion, 17.1.3
- -LCB-, 1
- -LGS, 1.2.1, 2.2.2
- -LOC, 2.2.3
- -LRB-, 2.6, 1
- -LSB-, 1
- LST, 2.1.2, 1
- left-dislocation, 2.2.2, 4.2.3
- likely, 14.2.3
- lists, 24, 24
- locatives, 2.2.3, 2.2.3
- long-distance movement, 9.3
- -MNR, 2.2.3
- measure/amount phrases, 11.3, 11.3.6
- miscellaneous
constructions, 26
- modifiers
-
as appositives, 2
- measure/amount phrases, 11.3, 11.3.6
- of NP, 11, 11.5
- PP, 1.1.4
- postadjectival, 1.1.4
- postverbal, 1, 1.1.5
- preverbal, 1.1.5
- shared, 8, 8.5
- more than, 11.3.1
- more than, 11.3.5, 11.3.6, 1
- multi-word ADVPs, 26.2
- multi-word PPs, 2
- multipliers, 11.3.5
- NAC, 2.1.2, 3, 11.1.2
- NAC-TTL, 12.3
- -NOM, 1.2.1, 2.2.1
- *NOT*, 4.7, 4.7.3
- NP, 2.1.2
-
shared heads, 8.5, 8.5
- vs. S or S-NOM, 13.3.4, 1, 1(a)iv, 1(a), 1(a), 1(a), 1(a), 1(b), 1(b), 2, 3, 4, 13.3.4
- NX, 2.1.2, 3, 2, 12.2, 12.2
-
definition of, 3, 3, 3
- in shared constructions, 8.5, 8.5
|
- no doubt, 26.1
- no matter, 26.1
- not to mention, 2
- notation, 2
- nouns, 1.1.4
- now that, 10.6.2
- null elements, 4.1, 4.8.8
- numbered lists, 24, 24
- OF, 4.8.7
- objects
-
dative, 2
- direct, 1
- indirect, 2
- orphans, 26
- PP, 2.1.2
- *PPA*-attach, 1, 5.2, 5.2.3
- -PRD, 1.1.1, 1.1.3, 2.2.2, 6.1, 6.1.3
- PRN, 2.1.2, 2.6, 1, 2
- PRO
-
arbitrary, 4.3
- controlled, 4.3
- -PRP, 2, 2.2.3
- PRT, 2.1.2, 4.3.2
- -PUT, 2.2.2
- parasitic gap, 4.2.5
- parentheses, 2.6, 1
- parentheticals, 2.6, 1
- participles, 1.2.1, 13
-
and gerunds, distinction betw., 13.1.1
- dangling, 5
- “floating”, 1.2.1, 3, 13.6.2, 3(d)
-
and commas, 3(b)
- vs. reduced
relatives, 11.2.3
- vs. reduced relatives, 13.6, 3
- past, 13.4, 13.4.3, 4
- present, 10.2, 13.3, 3
- passive traces, 1.2.1, 1.2.4
- passives, 1.2.1
- percent, 26.1
- permanent predictable ambiguity, 5.2
- phrasal verbs, 2.2.4, 2.2.4
- pied-piping, 1
- places, 11.4, 11.4.2
- postmodifiers, 1.1.5
- predicate, 1.1.1
- predication
adjuncts, 2.2.4
- predication adjuncts, 2.2.4
- premodifiers, 1.1.5
- prepositional
phrases
-
conjunctive, 5.4.3
- pseudo-prepositions, 6
- prepositional phrases, 1.1.4
- present progressive, 13.2
- pseudo-adjectives, 3
- pseudo-attach, 2.5, 5, 5.6
- *pseudo-attach*, 4.8.7
- pseudo-prepositions, 13.3.6, 3, 6
- punctuation
-
and pseudo-attach, 5.6
- basic guidelines, 3
- final, 3.1.2
- paired, 1
- unpaired, 2
- purpose clauses, 2, 2.2.3
- QP, 2.1.2, 11.3.1
- quantifier phrases, 11.3.1
- “quasi-conjunctions”, 2
- questions, 1.2.1, 1.3.3
- quotations, 1.3.4, 4.2.3
- -RCB-, 1
- *RNR*-attach, 2, 5.3, 5.3, 4(b)ii
- -RRB-, 2.6, 1
- RRC, 1.2.4, 1.2.4, 2.1.2, 13.6.1, 13.6.1
- -RSB-, 1
- ranges/endpoints, 11.3.2
- rather than, 2
- rather than, 2
- reason clauses, 2.2.3
- reference index, 2.4.2, 4.1.2
- referential it, 19, 19
- regardless of, 26.1
- relative
clauses, 1.2.4
-
coordination of reduced relatives, 4
- free (“headless”), 2
- reduced relatives
-
vs. “floating” participles, 13.6
- relative clauses, 1.3.2
- resultatives, 2
- right node raising, 2, 5.3, 5.3, 4(b)ii, 8.5
- S, 1, 1.1.3, 1.2.1, 2.1.1
- S-ADV, 13.1.1, 13.1.2, 13.3.3, 13.3.3, 4
- SBAR, 1.2.3, 1.3.2, 1.3.2, 2.1.1, 10.6.1, 10.6.2
-
in comparative
constructions, 10.4
- SBAR 0, 1.3.4
- SBAR-ADV, 1.2.2
- SBARQ, 1.2.5, 2.1.1
- -SBJ, 1.1.2, 2.2.2
- SINV, 1.2.2, 2.1.1
- SQ, 1.2.1, 1.2.5, 1.2.6, 2.1.1
- scores, 4
- semi-auxiliaries, 1(d)
- “serial verbs”, 2
- shared traces, 4.8.4
- small
clauses
- small clauses, 15, 15.5.2
- so as in do so, 2.2.2
- so as, 10.6.2
- so that, 10.6.2
- so...that, 10.3.6
- spend/waste
time/money X-ing, 2
- subject
- subordinate clauses, 10, 10.7
- substantive adjectives, 11.1.5
- such as, 2
- such that, 10.6.2, 10.6.2, 10.6.2
- symbols, 11.3.3
- syntactic labels, 2
- T, 4.8.7
- *T*, 4.2, 4.2.5
-
wh-questions, 4.2.1
- fronted elements, 4.2.3
- must have reference index, 4.8.7
- relative clauses, 4.2.2
- -TMP, 2.2.3
- -TPC, 1.2.2, 1.3.3, 2.2.2, 4.2.3, 4.2.3, 4.2.3
- -TTL, 2.2.4, 12.1, 12.3
- take, 14.2.5
- the...the, 10.7, 25, 25
- though, 26.1
- though-clefts, 21
- through, 11.3.6
- times, 2
- times, 7.5.3, 11.3.5
- titles, 2.2.4, 12, 12.3
- too, 14.2.3
- tough
movement, 3
- tough movement, 4.2.4, 14.2.3
- *U* (unit), 4.5, 4.5.2, 1
- UCP, 1.3.1, 2.1.2, 7.2
- use, 1(c)
- using, 26.1
- -VOC, 1.2.1, 2.2.2
- VP, 1.1.3, 3, 2.1.2
- WHADJP, 1.2.3, 2.1.2, 2(c)
- WHADVP, 1.2.3, 2.1.2, 2, 2
- WHNP, 1.2.3, 2.1.2, 1, 1
- WHPP, 1.2.3, 2.1.2, 2(d), 3
- weather it, 19
- wh-clauses, 1.2.3
- wh-clauses, 4.8.5
- wh-clefts, 16.2
- wh-clefts, 1.2.7
- wh-movement, 1.2.3
- wh-phrases
- wh-phrases, 9, 9.3
-
*ICH*-attaching to, 9.1.3
- in relative clauses, 9.2
- wh-questions, 1.2.5
- what if, 2
- whether or not, 10.6.2
- whether or not, 10.6.2
- why (not), 3
- with
- with, 10.5
- worth, 26.1
- X, 2.1.2, 26.3
- 0 (null complementizer), 4.4, 4.4.3
|
- 1
- This phase of the project was funded by the Linguistic Data
Consortium. Previous work was funded by DARPA and AFOSR jointly
under grant No. AFOSR-90-006, with additional support by DARPA grant
No. N0014-85-K0018 and by ARO grant No. DAAL 03-89-C0031 PRI. Seed
money was provided by the General Electric Corporation under grant
No. J01746000. We gratefully acknowledge this support.
- 2
- We would like to thank Mitch Marcus for his support and
encouragement in the production of this document and the policy it
describes. Leslie Dossey and Elizabeth Hamilton put a lot of effort into
early analysis and organization of the issues. Beatrice Santorini wrote
the previous manual, upon which much of our policy is still based.
Finally, we would like to thank a set of people too numerous to mention
specifically for their helpful criticisms, suggestions, and advice.
This document was translated from LATEX by
HEVEA.